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      "body": "Congratulations @mand! You received a personal award!\n\n<table><tr><td>https://steemitimages.com/70x70/http://steemitboard.com/@mand/birthday2.png</td><td>Happy Birthday! - You are on the Steem blockchain for 2 years!</td></tr></table>\n\n<sub>_You can view [your badges on your Steem Board](https://steemitboard.com/@mand) and compare to others on the [Steem Ranking](https://steemitboard.com/ranking/index.php?name=mand)_</sub>\n\n\n###### [Vote for @Steemitboard as a witness](https://v2.steemconnect.com/sign/account-witness-vote?witness=steemitboard&approve=1) to get one more award and increased upvotes!",
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      "body": "Congratulations @mand! You have received a personal award!\n\n[![](https://steemitimages.com/70x70/http://steemitboard.com/@mand/birthday1.png)](http://steemitboard.com/@mand)  1 Year on Steemit\n<sub>_Click on the badge to view your Board of Honor._</sub>\n\n\n**Do not miss the [last post](https://steemit.com/steemitboard/@steemitboard/steemitboard-world-cup-contest-columbia-vs-japan) from @steemitboard!**\n\n---\n**Participate in the [SteemitBoard World Cup Contest](https://steemit.com/steemitboard/@steemitboard/steemitboard-world-cup-contest-collect-badges-and-win-free-sbd)!**\nCollect World Cup badges and win free SBD\nSupport the Gold Sponsors of the contest: [@good-karma](https://v2.steemconnect.com/sign/account-witness-vote?witness=good-karma&approve=1) and [@lukestokes](https://v2.steemconnect.com/sign/account-witness-vote?witness=lukestokes.mhth&approve=1)\n\n---\n\n> Do you like [SteemitBoard's project](https://steemit.com/@steemitboard)? Then **[Vote for its witness](https://v2.steemconnect.com/sign/account-witness-vote?witness=steemitboard&approve=1)** and **get one more award**!",
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      "body": "nice post, very interesting. looking forward to future post.",
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      "author": "mand",
      "permlink": "ivory-part-1-the-phoenicians",
      "title": "Ivory Part 1: The Phoenicians",
      "body": "<html>\n<p>I have tentatively titled this post “Ivory Part 1” because I hope to begin a series of miscellaneous histories related to the ivory trade. Note that I have no intention of being either chronological or holistic; here the Phoenicians are neither the start of the trade nor unique among contemporaries.</p>\n<center><img src=\"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Nimrud_ivory_lion_eating_a_man.jpg/800px-Nimrud_ivory_lion_eating_a_man.jpg\" width=\"200\" height=\"200\"/></center>\n<center><a href=\"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Nimrud_ivory_lion_eating_a_man.jpg/800px-Nimrud_ivory_lion_eating_a_man.jpg\">Source</a></center>\n<p>The far reaching trade of Iron Age Phoenicia, a collection of city states centered in present-day Lebanon, is well known. Here I review the ivory subset of that trade.</p>\n<h2><strong>Sources</strong></h2>\n<p>As ivory was harvested from elephants and hippopotami, the Phoenicians obtained the raw material from regions in Africa and Asia. Specifically ivory came from Syria, North Africa (with later shifts toward the west), and India and East Africa via the Red Sea and Egypt.</p>\n<center><img src=\"http://www.ancient-origins.net/sites/default/files/field/image/Uluburun-ancient-shipwreck.jpg\" width=\"600\" height=\"401\"/></center>\n<center><a href=\"http://www.ancient-origins.net/sites/default/files/field/image/Uluburun-ancient-shipwreck.jpg\">Source</a></center>\n<p>The 14th century BC Uluburun shipwreck provides early, substantial evidence of the ivory trade. Although the wreck predates the Phoenicians, the ship’s Syro-Canaanite origins link it to the Phoenicians. The cargo included one full and one partial elephant tusk and thirteen hippopotamus teeth. Additionally there were several crafted ivories, such as a trumpet carved from a hippopotamus incisor. The source of these tusks and teeth has not been pinpointed, but can be narrowed to Libya, Sudan, Egypt, Syria and Palestine.</p>\n<p>The Phoenicians, however, had little ability to exploit Syrian elephants and hippopotami in Syria-Palestine. By the 7th century BC the Syrian elephant population had been eliminated, while the hippopotamus followed suit (a reduced population may have survived until the 4th century BC).</p>\n<p>In one view, these exterminations motivated the Phoenicians to seek ivory farther afield. 1 Kings 10 relates the voyages of Tyrian king Hiram I’s (r. c. 980—947 BC) fleets to Ophir and Tarshish, returning with “gold, silver, ivory, apes, and peacocks.” There are diverse theories on the locations of both of these regions. Ophir is often placed in India or the Red Sea. At the least, Phoenicia conducted some trade with western Arabia, obtaining ivory from East Africa and India. However, India had diminished as a source of ivory from the mid-2nd millennium BC.</p>\n<center><img src=\"http://www.metmuseum.org/-/media/Images/Exhibitions/2014/Assyria%20to%20Iberia/Blog/sailing7.jpg?w=1200&amp;hash=5FFD5E1084465452F030D8637B04023409B4B715\" width=\"1200\" height=\"330\"/></center>\n<center><a href=\"http://www.metmuseum.org/-/media/Images/Exhibitions/2014/Assyria%20to%20Iberia/Blog/sailing7.jpg?w=1200&amp;hash=5FFD5E1084465452F030D8637B04023409B4B715\">Source</a></center>\n<p>Tarshish was likely located in the western Mediterranean, perhaps corresponding with Tartessos in southern Spain. This interpretation is backed by the late 7th/early 6th century BC Bajo de la Campana shipwreck off the southeastern coast of Spain. Excavations of the wreck yielded over fifty elephant tusks. The geometry of these tusks suggests that they were harvested from African forest elephants in western North Africa. Several of these tusks were inscribed with a name and dedication. The inscribed tusks were probably votive offerings and were not intended for trade. Carved ivory dagger handles and an ivory base for an ostrich egg were also recovered. The ship’s immediate destination was likely La Fontenta along the coast to the north. Here some of these ivories could have been employed in trade with elites.</p>\n<h2><strong>Carvings</strong></h2>\n<center><img src=\"http://media.gettyimages.com/illustrations/egyptian-sphinx-in-ivory-imported-from-the-phoenicians-details-from-illustration-id148356175?s=170667a\" /> <p><a href=\"http://media.gettyimages.com/illustrations/egyptian-sphinx-in-ivory-imported-from-the-phoenicians-details-from-illustration-id148356175?s=170667a\">Source</a> </p><img src=\"https://oi-archive.uchicago.edu/OI/IRAQ/Images/iv4/iv4_0904l.jpg\" width=\"375\" height=\"457\"/><p><a href=\"https://oi-archive.uchicago.edu/OI/IRAQ/Images/iv4/iv4_0904l.jpg\">Source</a></p></center>\n<p>After two or three centuries of decline, Syrian and Phoenician traditions of ivory carving revived by the 9th century BC. While the Syrian school was soon pressed by the loss of the Syrian elephant, the Phoenicians, with their expanded trade networks, maintained their ivory production into the Achaemenid period. &nbsp;The Phoenicia style is distinct for its Egyptian themes and relative realism and grace. Compare, for example, the two ivory sphinxes from Nimrud above. The Phoenician type, on the top, has elegantly arched wings, an Egyptian headdress, and a slender frame. By contrast, the Syrian ivory, on the bottom, is more concerned with bulk and power.</p>\n<p>The Phoenicia style is distinct for its Egyptian themes and relative realism and grace. Compare, for example, the two ivory sphinxes from Nimrud above. The Phoenician type, on the left, has elegantly arched wings, an Egyptian headdress, and a slender frame. By contrast, the Syrian ivory, on the right, is more concerned with bulk and power.</p>\n<p>The ivories excavated at Nimrud were collected by the Assyrians in the form of tribute from the Phoenicians and as loot during their Near Eastern conquests. This tribute, which included raw and crafted ivory, was solidified under the Assyrian king Ashurnasirpal II (r. 883—859 BC). In a more consensual exchange, raw and worked ivory was also sent to Israel and Judah, as evidenced by the 8th century BC Samaria Ivories. To the west, sites in Cyprus, Greece, North Africa, Etruria, and Spain have also yielded Phoenician ivories.</p>\n</html>",
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      "body": "<html>\n<p><center><img src=\"http://en.natmus.dk/typo3temp/GB/5210b8c2a0.jpg\"/></center></p>\n<p>The carnyx was a magnificent instrument that has left a fascinating impression in the historical record. Diodurus Siculus, writing between 60 and 30 BC, described the strange carnyx of the Gauls:</p>\n<blockquote>&nbsp;Their trumpets are of peculiar nature and such as barbarians use, for when they are blown upon they give forth a harsh sound, appropriate to the tumult of war.</blockquote>\n<p>Indeed, the conventional view is that the carnyx was specially adapted for warfare.&nbsp;Upwards of 2 meters in length, the horn was held vertically above the heads of soldiers to project across the battlefield. The top of the carnyx featured the head of a boar, serpent or other beast. Spectacularly, some of these heads had jointed tongues and jaws, which would move as the instrument was played. The total effect was surely terrifying; Polybius (c. 200-116 BC) described the sound of the Celts at the Battle of Telamon (225 BC):</p>\n<blockquote>The Romans . . . were terrified by the fine order of the Celtic host &nbsp;and the dreadful din, for there were innumerable horn-blowers and trumpeters, and, as the whole army were shouting their war-cries at the same time, there was such a tumult of sound that it seemed that not only the trumpets and the soldiers but all the country round had got a voice and caught up the cry.&nbsp;</blockquote>\n<p>Modern reconstructions give us an uncertain sample of the sound:</p>\n<iframe width=\"560\" height=\"315\" src=\"https://www.youtube.com/embed/hVAWwWi0DbE\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen></iframe>\n<p><center><img src=\"http://www.humanities.mq.edu.au/acans/caesar/images-coins/RRC-450-1-Reverse-Sml.jpg\"/></center></p>\n<p>With Rome's conquest of 'barbarian' lands came depictions of carnyces on coins and monuments. Among the coins commemorating Caesar's success in Gaul is a coin of crossed carnyces.&nbsp;Likewise, Trajan's Column celebrates the victory over the Dacians with images of carnyces.</p>\n<p><center><img src=\"http://www.emaproject.eu/images/carnyx/02%20Tintignac%20Carnyx.JPG\"\n /></center></p>\n<p>Archaeologists have uncovered carnyces across the traditional region of the Celts, with discoveries in modern Scotland, Germany, France, Switzerland, and Romania. There is growing evidence that the instrument was not used exclusively for warfare. Some carnyces appear to have been held horizontally,&nbsp;blocking their use in formation. Additionally, carnyces have been found from peaceful eras and locations. The horn surely had both combative and ritualistic functions.</p>\n<p><center><img src=\"https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/736x/c6/46/26/c64626dfb98adc2f5e01cf29419521a4.jpg\"\n /></center></p>\n</html>",
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      "title": "History of the Star and Crescent",
      "body": "![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Flag_of_the_Aceh_Sultanate.png/1200px-Flag_of_the_Aceh_Sultanate.png)\nToday the star and crescent is commonly viewed as a symbol of Islam. Here I explore some of the prior uses of the motif, beginning with ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia.\n\n# Egypt and Mesopotamia\nThe Egyptian hieroglyph for “month” ![](http://www.polysyllabic.com/images/egmonth.gif) features a crescent above a star. This hieroglyph is a remnant of a lunar calendar which was replaced by a solar calendar by the mid-3rd millennium BC (however, the lunar calendar retained some religious functions). \n\n![](https://steemitimages.com/DQmaPiQxvJaSri2dKxy2DBfzPqJJt14eJB1bZe1DniJanfS/image.png)\nThe star and crescent symbol had a heavier spiritual significance in ancient Mesopotamia. The Babylonian cuneiform word _shiptu_ (“incantation”) originally took a form very similar to the modern star and crescent. The word was apparently used to ward off evil, lending to its popularity.\n![](https://steemitimages.com/DQmc7hGHE8VYh6ddP2fxFDez18ui5mVntASe5ZqwLMKsiN4/image.png)\nStars adjoining crescents are also a common design on Mesopotamian boundary stones in the late Bronze Age. The boundary stone of King Nebuchadnezzar I of Babylon (r. c. 1125-1104 BC) contains a rare example of a star within a crescent. The symbols were associated with the deities Sin (moon) and Ishtar (Venus). The representation of Venus through the star is a strong link to later Byzantine uses of the emblem.\n\n# Byzantium and the Bosporus\nBy the first century BC the star and crescent emblem decorated the coins of the city Byzantium. Ancient writers would later explain the symbol as a tribute to the goddess Hecate. Legend held that Hecate saved the Byzantines in 339 BC from Philip II of Macedon by providing light to reveal his siege tunnels. Recounting the event in the seventh century AD, Stephen of Byzantine describes Hecate as _phosphoros_ (“light-bearer”).  The capitalized form of this word is a name for Aphrodite, which suggests some connection to the star. Artemis-Hecate’s association with the moon explains the crescent.\n![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e0/Coin_Temple_of_Aphrodite_Paphos.png)\nIn reality, Hecate’s popularity probably did not begin with delivery from the siege. Some ancient sources record the night as cloudy, ruling out any astronomical signs. The transfer of the star and crescent symbol from Mesopotamia to the Greek world may be traced to the Temple of Aphrodite at Paphos, Cyprus. The temple, active as early as the late Bronze Age, was later depicted in coins with a crowning star and crescent. Certainly Paphos played a major role in the adoption of Ishtar—the island was the legendary birthplace of Aphrodite.\n\n![]( https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ea/Dinastia_attalide_di_pergamo%2C_mitridate_III%2C_tetradracma_del_ponto%2C_220-185_ac_ca.JPG)\nTo the east of Byzantium, the use of the symbol by the Kingdom of Pontus adds another dimension. The star and crescent first appears on coins of Mithridates III (r. c. 220-183 BC) and becomes famous under Mithridates VI (r. c. 120-63 BC). The flow of these designs to Byzantium may have been aided by Mirthridates VI’s hold over the city around the late 80s BC. The Mithridatic dynasty claimed descent from the kings of the Achaemenid Empire, and the religion of Pontus was a blend of Zoroastrian and Greek elements. Thus, the crescent was seen as the lunar deity Mah, while the star represented Mithras, associated with the sun.\n\n# Persia\n![]( http://media.liveauctiongroup.net/i/7591/9258554_2.jpg?v=8CC78AB4F03FF00)\nThe symbol next emerges in the Parthian Empire, beginning with the coins of Phraates V (r. 2 BC – 4 AD). Here the star represented either the Zoroastrian divinity Mithra or the divinity Tishtrya. The case for Mithra is supported by the pseudo-Zoroastrian Pontus use of the star. The crescent likely corresponds with the goddess Anahita. The star and crescent became an emblem of the Parthian kings and was adopted by the rulers of the Sassanian Empire as a sign of legitimacy.\n![](http://teachmiddleeast.lib.uchicago.edu/historical-perspectives/empires-to-nation-states/late-antiquity/images/empires-nations-late-antiquity-11.jpg)\nIn the Sassanian period the star and crescent is shown with explicitly Zoroastrian elements. Coins display a portrait of the king surrounded by the symbol; on the reverse there is a depiction of a fire altar with attendants.\n\n# Islam\n![](https://steemitimages.com/DQmRLHzJM6iuS2SAk1VBgwT9W3tbKHKrBG3qivexvdqXt7x/image.png)\nWhen Muslim Arabs conquered Persia in the seventh century, Sassanian coin designs were only preserved. The reformist caliph Abd al-Malik (r. 685-705 AD) would eventually replace the fire altar scene with Arabic, but the less offensive stars and crescents remained. Historians differ on the influence these coins had on symbol’s popularity with Muslims. Certainly the symbol received decades of exposure and was agreeable with later aniconism. The symbol later appears, perhaps independently, in Muslim art.\n![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d1/Hayton_BNF886_9v.jpg)\nThe question now is how the star and crescent emblem progressed from the margins of early Muslim coins to the flag of the Ottoman Empire? While Sassanian-style coins continued to spread into the Abbasid period, the symbol somewhat disappears until the early 14th century. From this time survives an illustration of the Battle of Yarmouk (636 AD) showing Muslim combatants under a star and crescent flag. By the 16th century the star and crescent was popular among Ottoman naval flags and also adorned the flags of the empire’s easternmost influence: the Aceh Sultanate in Indonesia. In the west, Bosnia also used the emblem at this time.\n![]( https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire.svg/640px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire.svg.png)\nAt this point, with the star and crescent spanning the Muslim world, the Ottoman Empire’s adoption of the symbol is natural. In the late 18th century the star and crescent became the official navy ensign; in 1844, during the Tanzimat reforms, the red with white star and crescent flag was established as the national flag.\nThe Ottoman Empire’s endorsement of the star and crescent finalized the association between the symbol and Islam. In the late 19th century, Western sources used the star and crescent as a metonymy for the Ottomans, and by extension Islam. As a result, the flags of Muslim nations created in the 20th century often feature the star and crescent, even if the country was never a part of the Ottoman Empire. Other Muslims, surely noting the religiously-charged history of the symbol, reject the star and crescent.",
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