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      "body": "![images (1).jpg](https://cdn.steemitimages.com/DQmVkGFBySFG8b243sDt5cSxc6az2QZnqhUHMMdf2kDweVw/images%20(1).jpg)\nINTRODUCTION \nFish farming is the act of rearing selected species of fish under scientificically controlled conditions in enclosed bodies of water such as ponds, streams, rivers, etc., where they feed, grow, breed and are harvested for consumption or for sale. Based on the definition above, I have decided to fashion a business enterprise in fish farming other wise known as aquaculture. The name of my enterprise is MURPHY FISH CULTURE. Murphy Fish culture is involved in the procurement of fingerlings and rearing them up to maturity for sales. It is a business idea that is profit oriented as well as designed to give the best of fishes to consumers. Rearing of fishes from fingerlings to table size is not a day's job. It requires step by step process which cannot be missed but carefully followed to have both the determined quality and quantity of fish so desired by the farmer and his consumers. \n\nCONCEPT AND NATURE OF FISH FARMING \nFish farming has proven to be a lucrative business over the years. \nThis form of agriculture has found a huge fan base primarily due to the relative ease of culturing catfish, the readily available markets for catfish, e.g. with restaurants, especially as catfish is a treasured delicacy among many Nigerian cultures as well as the profitability of a successful catfish venture. Many Nigerians involved in catfish farming use concrete ponds or plastic tanks. Using ponds gives the farmer the leverage of culturing a relatively larger number of fishes as pond design can be tailored from the outset to match intended fish density. Culturing tanks are however limited in sizes and fixed, thus limiting the catfish farmer to stocking the tanks with a restricted number of fishes for best results. African catfish usually takes an average of 5 months to reach table size. At this age they usually have attained an average weight of 1kg. The weight attained by catfish after 5 months is however variable depending on a number of factors that may include, quality of fingerlings used, quality of feeds, water management quality, absence of disease, stocking density among others. It is not uncommon to have fish weigh up to 1.5kg after five months. The market price of African catfish is usually gauged per kg- weight of fish. This price is relatively pinned at an average between 600 to 700 Naira across Nigeria. Rearing catfish is not merely about buying fingerlings and ‘dumping’ them in a pond and then feeding them 'thrice' a day. From the outset the farmer should take time to put into consideration the following: quality of fingerlings, pond design, feeding program, water management and as well as markets for harvested catfish. \nQuality of Fingerlings: Catfish fingerlings are of different breeds, just like other species of animals. It is important that the catfish farmer takes his time to identify fast growing and disease resistant breeds of fingerlings to ensure profitability in a catfish venture. This can be done through appropriate consultation with a specialist in fingerlings and physically evaluating fingerlings from several farms before making a pick on stock of fingerlings.\nPond Design: Stocking density plays a huge role in the growth rate of cultured catfish. Like for all other animals over-crowding catfish would increase competition for resources like food and oxygen. This can promote the growth of some fish at the expense of others and in the end lead to cannibalism. Besides, pressure stresses due to over-stocking are bound to affect the all-round development of fish in the pond. Once stunted growth sets in from the outset it is bound to linger. Therefore the catfish farmer would want to consider an appropriate length, breadth and depth of pond, depending on his intended number of fishes to stock pond with. Also pond design should incorporate provision for the separation of fishes in the event that growth is non-proportionate to avoid\ncannibalism. Water management for pond would mean periodic changing of water and pond design should incorporate this from the outset to avoid challenges.\nFeeding Catfish: This constitutes the bulk of the cost of rearing catfish, usually 60% and above. In most places in Nigeria available catfish feeds are imported and cost an average of N5,500/15kg bag. A 15kg bag can take 700 two month old fishes just 10 days! While you are in a hurry to start reaping the profit from catfish culturing, be prepared beforehand for the challenge of feeding the fishes. Catfish can be fed once or twice a day. Excessive feeding of fingerlings increases the cost of rearing catfish and thus results in wastage as this may only result in marginal growth increases.\nFeeds are also a primary source of pond water pollution and excessive feeding constitutes a water management challenge. Thus the catfish farmer needs to strike a balance between feeding and water management. There are several subjective formulas used to determine an appropriate feeding program\nfor fish. One is to provide as much feeds that fishes can finish\nin 5 – 10 minutes. This can then be used as the quantity of\nfeed needed for ‘satiation’. Using this formula, catfish can be\nfed just once a day. With respect to feeding catfish, an alternative for Nigerian farmers is the use of locally-made feeds. Unlike the imported counterpart, local feeds cost an average of N4000/15kg bag without considerable growth implications. A challenge however would be to access sources of such local feeds as most parts of Nigeria are filled with the expensive imported feeds.\nWater Management: A huge percentage of fish deaths have been related to water management issues. Pond design should take into consideration the pH of water (acidic water kills fish real fast, basic water is suitable for fingerlings and neutral water is required for fries (really tiny fishes)). It is also important to stimulate the growth of plankton by introducing manure into the pond before stocking with fingerlings. Oxygen requirement for fishes is dependent on an effective water management system as too much plankton growth results in competition for oxygen among plankton and catfish. Waste from fish as well as pollution from feeds also reduce the oxygen content of pond water, resulting in stresses on fish. An indication of declining oxygen is when fishes are seen for considerable periods on the water surface (trying to breathe better). Water should be replaced from time to time (though this can be a challenge in places where water availability is a problem).\n\nPRODUCT DESCRIPTION \n   At the end of five month, the harvested catfish weighs an average of 1kg.  Catfish is a rich source of animal protein which also can pass for meat in our diet.  A fish weighing up to 1kg and above after all the intensive care and management is said to be filled with flesh and worth the price for which it is been sold. All products from MURPHY FISH CULTURE must attain market size and weight of 1kg before it is released for sale.  Apart from being a good source of protein, fish is also have other nutritious value which are to numerous to mention.\nVALUE PROPOSITION OF MURPHY FISH CULTURE \nWe believe in standard business operations and ethics and so are willing to make sure that our customers come back to patronize our fish again and again. In the light of this we have a formulated ethics which include but not limited to:\n1. Ensuring that we use an accurate and precise scale for measurements \n2. That our customers are given warm welcome when they come by. \n3. We maintain a clean and healthy environment at all times \n4. Our sales representative are available at all times and at the point of call. \n5. We are engaged in home delivery and other processes for our customers \n6. We are ready to treat all cases of bad products, irregularities on our part and other problems.\n7. Ensure that we maintain a healthy relationship with you customers. \nEXPECTED CUSTOMERS \nBased on our market survey, our targeted markets include:\n1. Restaurants\n2. Fast food\n3. Hotels\n4.Cafeterias\n5. Individuals and group of people e. t. c\n\n\nEXPECTED COMPETITORS \nFish farming is not a one man's show.  The business is as old as man it self and will still continue as long as the water bodies continue to exist. Our competitors include local Fisher men, other fish farmers that are into aquaculture and business men who import fish and their by products. With this persons and group of people in business, the ride into stardom would be rough for us. And since our major focus is catfish, farmers who culture mudfish,  Tilapia fish and other species of fishes will stand against us.\n\nCOMPETITIVE STRATEGY \nIn business, there will always be competitors. The ability to out smart your competitors and pull the larger crowd makes you a good business person. As earlier highlighted in our value proposition, we are going to ensure that we maintain a good relationship with our customers and attend to their complains at all times. We are also going to ensure that our customers are aware that there is home delivery and drop off at a relatively low cost. We will organize promo regularly and give discounts to our customers who buys large number of fish. At all times we will make sure that we do not sell above normal market price for which our competitors are selling. As a matter of fact we will put in our best to minimize cost of production which in turn will affect cost of sale while still maximizing profit. We shall ensure that our counter parts do not know our market strategies which shall be unique to us alone.\n\nSUSTAINABILITY AND PROFITABILITY STRATEGY \nIt is one thing to start a business, it is another thing to stay in Business. In order to stay in business, we will ensure that our accounts are always balanced and quickly identify the lapses where necessary. By ensuring that there is an efficient means of preserving harvested fish to minimize spoilage. By always conducting research on ways to minimize cost of production. By having steady customers who are prepared to buy our products once they are ready. This means our marketing strategy will come to play. We also going to ensure that we have the customers in mind while fixing the price for our fish. For our profitability we are going to include transparent accounting in which we will be able to make observations and inferences to know our strength, work on our weaknesses, prepare to grab every opportunities and strive to eliminate all threat. Above all we will ensure that we minimize cost of production and maximize profit because the sole aim of business is profit maximization. Your business can only be sustained if you are getting something from it rather than giving all to it and nothing is showing that it's improving. Sustainability is very essential and as a starter I will ensure that I have it in mind that no matter what I will not give up so easily.\nCONCLUSION \nStarting a business is a big job. It takes risk and patience to develop a business which will stand for a long time. It is more than just investing huge or small capital. It requires intellectual management and putting all the variables together. Murphy Catfish is set to conquer the business world with it strength in making good business policies that would form it business value proposition which will draw more customers to patronize our catfish. With a regular production of catfish we are going to be feeding the fish market with our regular supply of 'Pisces' species known as Clarias glarriepinus (cat fish).",
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      "author": "udemejames",
      "permlink": "market-segmentation",
      "title": "MARKET SEGMENTATION",
      "body": "![download (3).jpg](https://cdn.steemitimages.com/DQmZkjKm2G4jEYdbdzCSc9S1NEA4jYE7YLDB5AXuYPoNG5C/download%20(3).jpg)\n \nINTRODUCTION\nConcept of Market Segmentation\nIn older days, many business firms viewed all their consumer population as a single market with uniform characteristics and requirements. Hence the developed a single brand and a common marketing program to satisfy all their consumer population. However, in the recent years with the increase in the competition this old approach of firms does not yield the desired results. Hence the modern firms subdivide their target market into different groups and subgroups of consumer population on the basis of their identifiable distinct and homogeneous characteristics.\nEach of these groups is called a market segment . Further the firms use distinct marketing mix for each of these market segments, in order to increase consumer satisfaction and profits of the business. Thus market segmentation is a recent idea that helps the firms in framing their marketing strategy.\n\n\nDefinitions\nSame of the important definitions of market segmentation are given below.\n(1) Marketing segmentation is a process of dividing a market into distinct groups of buyers on the basis of needs, characteristics or behaviour who might repaire separate products or marketing mixes”.\n- Philip Kotler\n- The American Marketing Association\n(2) Market segmentation consists of taking the total heterogenous market for a product and dividing it into served sub markets or segments each of which tends to be homogeneous in all significant aspects.\n- William A. Stanton\nThus, market segmentation is the process of subdividing of the target market into subgroups of consumer population with identifiable, district and homogeneous characteristics with view to develop and pursued distinct and differentiated marketing program for such subgroup in order to enhance consumer satisfaction and the profit position of business.\n\n\nFeatures\nOn careful analysis of the above definitions, we may obtain the following characteristic features of market segmentation.\n(1) Process : Market segmentation is a process of subdividing the target market for firm’s goods and services into subgroups of consumer population.\n(2) Segments : Consumers of products of services of a firm differ in their wants, resources, geographical location, buying attitudes, buying practices, etc. Hence, they are divided into homogeneous groups and subgroups having distinct features. Each of these subgroups are called segments. Thus, a marketing segment is a meaningful consumer group having distinct feature and similar want.\n(3) Object : The object of doing market segmentation is to enable the business firm to focus properly on the specific consumer needs of each segment and to maximise the consumer satisfaction and profits of business. Market segmentation also helps small business firms to identify the most attractive segments that they can serve effectively instead of running after all varieties of consumers in different segments without giving proper justice to any of them.\n(4) Special market mix : By doing market segmentation firms attempt to fulfill the needs of different consumer groups through proper marketing mix consisting of products, price, promotion and distribution.\n(5) Use of bases : For segmenting the firm’s market various bases are used, such as region, age, sex income levels, occupation, religion, consumption level, culture, etc. of consumers.\n\nImportance of Market Segmentation\nMarket segmentation strategy offers several benefits to the organization as well as to the consumers. The important benefits enjoyed by the organization using this strategy are :\n1. Improves Knowledge of Market : Market segmentation improves organization’s understanding of the market. While doing market segmentation, the marketing manager studies\nthe profile of consumers, their needs, wants and preferences.\n2. Identifies Market Opportunities : Marketing manager is in a better position of identify, compare and evaluate the marketing opportunities for his organisation. He examines the level of\nsatisfaction of different subgroups of consumers regarding the current marketing mix offered by various firms. The subgroups indicating lower level of satisfaction with the existing goods and  services offered by various competing firms represent excellent marketing opportunities for his firm.\n\nBases for Market Segmentation\nMarket segmentation involves grouping and subgrouping of consumers on the basis of similar buying characteristics. There are a number of bases on which such segmentation or grouping of consumers can be done. These bases are as under.\nBases of Market Segmentation\n(A) Consumer Characteristics (B) Consumer Responses\n(1) Geographic (1) Benefits\n(2) Demographic & Socio- (2) Usage\nEconomic\n(3) Psychographic (3) Loyalty\n(4) Occasion\n\n(A) Consumer Characteristics Approach :\nUnder this approach, person characteristics of consumers as to where they live, who are they, how they behave, etc. are considered for making segmentation of markets. Following is the brief explanation of these bases.\n(1) Geographic Segmentation : Geographic segmentation is the most traditional basis of market segmentation, which is used widely even today. The market is divided into different geographical units as continents, countries, states, districts, regions and areas, etc. As the consumers in different areas have different preferences and tastes for products, marketing managers distinguish carefully among the regions, in which they may operate and select only those where they hae comparative advantage. Sometimes, they may even operate in all those regions paying attention to the geographical needs and preferences of consumers in those regions.\n(2) Demographic and Socio-economic Segmentation : Demography means the study of population. Demographic segmentation is based on demographic variables, such as age, sex, marital status, family size, place of residence, etc. Socio-economic segmentation is based on socio-economic characteristics, such as income level, education, occupation, social class, religion and culture, family life cycle, etc. For example, the market for consumer goods in India is segmented into 3 segments - high income group, middle class and lower income group. The middle class is further segmented husband and wife working, young family with only husband working. etc. Such a type of segmentation helps in developing on demographic variables is the most popular for two reasons; firstly consumer wants, preferences and usage rates are highly associated with these variables, and secondly, these variables are easier to measure than most other types of variables.\n(3) Psychographic Segmentation : Psychographic is a recent approach to market segmentation. This approach has been designed by Professor E. Denby, who says that psychographic tries to describe the human character of consumers that has influence on their responses to products, packings, advertising and public relations efforts of the firm. Psychographic characteristics include variable like - personality, attitudes, life-style.\n\nMarkets are segmented using two or more of the above bases and proper market mix is provided\nfor target market segments.\nTargeting\nAfter the most attractive segments are selected, a company should not directly start targeting all\nthese segments -- other important factors come into play in defining a target market. Four sub activities form the basis for deciding on which segments will actually be targeted.\nThe four sub activities within targeting are:\n1. defining the abilities of the company and resources needed to enter a market\n2. analyzing competitors on their resources and skills\n3. considering the company’s abilities compared to the competitors' abilities\n4. deciding on the actual target markets.\nThe first three sub activities are described as the topic competitor analysis. The last sub activity of deciding on the actual target market is an analysis of the company's abilities to those of its competitors. The results of this analysis leads to a list of segments which are most attractive to target and have a good chance of leading to a profitable market share.\nPositioning\nWhen the list of target markets is made, a company might want to start on deciding on a good\nmarketing mix directly. Every segment is different from the others, so different customers with different ideas of what they expect from the product.\n \nCONCLUSION\nGenerically, there are three approaches to marketing. In the undifferentiated strategy, all\nconsumers are treated as the same, with firms not making any specific efforts to satisfy particular\ngroups. This may work when the product is a standard one where one competitor really can’t\noffer much that another one can’t. Usually, this is the case only for commodities. In the\nconcentrated strategy, one firm chooses to focus on one of several segments that exist while\nleaving other segments to competitors. For example, Southwest Airlines focuses on price\nsensitive consumers who will forego meals and assigned seating for low prices. In contrast, most\nairlines follow the differentiated strategy: They offer high priced tickets to those who are\ninflexible in that they cannot tell in advance when they need to fly and find it impractical to stay\nover a Saturday. These travelers—usually business travelers—pay high fares but can only fill\nthe planes up partially. The same airlines then sell some of the remaining seats to more price\nsensitive customers who can buy two weeks in advance and stay over.\n \nREFERENCES\n1.\t Pride, W., Ferrell, O.C., Lukas, B.A., Schembri, S., Niininen,O. and Cassidy, R., Marketing Principles, 3rd Asia-Pacific ed, Cengage, 2018, p.200\n2.\tMadhavaram, S., & Hunt, S. D., \"The Service-dominant Logic and a Hierarchy of Operant Resources: Developing Masterful Operant Resources and Implications for Marketing Strategy,\" Journal Of The Academy Of Marketing Science,Vol 36, No. 1, 2008, pp 67-82.\n3.\tDickson, Peter R.; Ginter, James L., \"Market Segmentation, Product Differentiation, and Marketing Strategy,\" Journal of Marketing, Vol. 51, No. 2, 1987,",
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      "title": "MAN AND THE MEASURE OF ALL THINGS; THE SOPHISTS (ANCIENT PHILOSOPHY)",
      "body": "![images.jpg](https://cdn.steemitimages.com/DQmaECGuMPAbF5L6v9pc7KFYMeQ7KLVtL4Fx8kV9eV8fyKN/images.jpg)\nMAN AND THE MEASURE OF ALL THINGS; THE SOPHISTS\n\nBY\n\n\nIntroduction\nFrom antiquity till date, man has continued on an endless quest to discover and provide answers to fundamental questions that bothers around the nature of the world, the nature of his existence as an individual and the nature of his existence as a living being in the world (Wogu, 2010:67) captures this point when he noted that “one thing that is sure is that people who lived in the past must have been driven by a desire to explain the world and the things or phenomenon around them”. In antiquity, the most puzzling issues amongst thinkers then include: “What are things really like? How do changes in things take place? These basic questions were some of the questions that they had to grapple with. It is interesting to know that the explanations they offered to these questions became what was dubbed Philosophy - the love of wisdom. The origin of all these speculations came from the realization that things are not really the way they appear or what they seem to represent to the one viewing them. The realization that appearance after all, differed from reality- the phenomenon of growth, birth, death and decay- fully manifested in the coming into being and the passing a way of life into death, was one puzzling issues that thinkers could not help but attempt to find answers to. For (Stumpf, 2003:5-6), “these facts raised sweeping questions of how things and people came into existence at different times, and pass out of existence only to be followed by other things and persons”. We wish to note that the many answers given by these ancient thinkers in response to the bugging question of their time were not really considered as important as when compared to the fact that they attempted to offer scientific answers to these bugging questions in the first place. Examples of these attempts were contained in the mythological answers giving by Homer and Hesiod.\n \nProtagoras and The Sophist’s Philosophy\nProtagoras Doctrines or philosophy can be identifies in three distinctive specific areas: The Orthoepeia, The Man-measure statement and Agnosticism. Rather than become one of the educators of his time, who offered specific and practical training in rhetoric or public speaking for money of some other kind of reward, Protagoras attempted to formulate a reasoned understanding of a wide range of human phenomena, including language and education. He is also known to have had an interest in “orthoepeia” - the correct use of words, although this topic was more strongly associated with his fellow sophist Prodicus. In his eponymous Platonic dialogue, Protagoras interprets a poem by Simonides, focusing on his use of words, their literal meaning and the author's original intent. This type of education would have been useful for the interpretation of laws and other written documents in the Athenian courts” (TIEP, 1995:15-23) He was also known to have said that “on any matter, there were often two arguments (logoi) opposed to one another. According to Aristotle, he was criticized for having claimed to \"make the weaker logos stronger (ton hēttō logon kreittō poiein)\". (TSEP, 2012). Of all his teachings and sayings, he was most famous for this saying: \"Man is the measure of all things: of things which are, that they are, and of things which are not, that they are not\".\nThe Socratic Philosophy\nThe Delphi Oracle is said to have confirmed “pronounced” Socrates as the wisest man on earth. The proclamation of the oracle at Delphi, studies reveal, had immeasurable influence on the life of Socrates. Confirmed to be the wisest man that was living on the face of the earth, Socrates spent the rest of his life with one mission in focus; which was to confirm or refute the proclamation by the gods. Consequently, Socrates went out, armed with the dialectic method as one of the major tools for achieving his assignment. Socrates did not merely engage in sophistry, he was not interested in arguing for the sake of arguing; rather he was poised to discover the essential nature of Knowledge, Justice, Beauty, Goodness, and especially, the traits of a good character such as Courage. Burrell describes “The Socratic Methods” as a methodology which have been classified as a dialogue of search, “it is a straightforward but unsuccessful discussion as to how knowledge should be defined, for though it shows what knowledge is not, it fails to discover what knowledge is. But though in the characteristic Socratic fashion, it reaches only a negative result,” (Burrell1932:27-41) the argument is conducted with such skill that, as Professor Taylor puts it: \"It is not too much to say that after more than two thousand years, the ultimate issues in \"Epistemology\" are still those which are expounded with unequalled simplicity in the Theaetetus, the best general introduction to the problem of knowledge ever composed.\" (Taylo, 1974:56) This is high praise, but it would be underrating its value to regard it merely as an epistemological essay in the conventional sense: for it is something much more important than the review and refutation of certain inadequate theories of knowledge or than the positive suggestions which are thrown out in the discussion. \nThe Measure Of All Things; A Critical Reflection\nMan’s quest to interpret man in the best possible way continues to reveal that most thinkers who undertake this task do so in terms of already accepted views of the nature of man. Others base their interpretation of man on certain theories of nature already adopted by men as a result of certain inclinations or orientation which is often tied to a particular school of thought. It is therefore not necessary to argue that there is a relation, for to those who, like the Sophists of Greece, holds that “Of all things, The Measure is Man” (Jean,2004:56-65) either in ethics or epistemology; and to those like the Marxists who make economic struggle the key to human history; or even to those who like Plato conceive of a world of Ideas to which the theory of man must conform; the pragmatist Dewey, speaking in terms of biological adjustment, defines history and knowledge in terms that make central his concept of man.\nCriticism of the Theory\nBurrell (1932) identified three simple criticisms that we find quite interesting in a study he made on the Greek sophists. We shall be adopting these theses criticism for the discussion we wish to make in this part of the study. \n(1). The Fist argument we wish to consider here is of the nature of argumentum ad hominem. It is surprising that so clever a man as Protagoras did not see that he proved more than he intended, for according to his theory, not only are all men - the wise and the foolish - reduced to the same level, but on the plane of sentient experience, it is just as true therefore to say that a pig or a tadpole is the measure of all things.\n(2). Another careful look at the maxim seem to completely stultifies Socrates' arts of midwifery and the whole practice of dialectics, for in Socrates opinion, it is utter nonsense to investigate and try to refute another's opinion, when every man's opinion is correct. The question that we can’t help asking therefore is, “Is the \"Truth\" of Protagoras truth, or is it only a sort of solemn jest”? The Protagorian perspectives about the gods and their existence; to a large extent, have not helped his cause in the ‘man measure’ maxim… which is considered a major proponent of agnosticism, he was known to have beenof the opinion that: “Concerning the gods, I have no means of knowing whether they exist or not or of what sort they may be, because of the obscurity of the subject, and the brevity of human life” (TIEP, 2008). This position about the god and the limitations of man punctures his claims about the place of man in the ‘man measure’ maxim. This further gives us reasons to equate the entire maxim by Protagoras alongside the famous theorem in philosophy which holds that: “Knowledge is Perception”. \n \nCONLUSION\nIn a similar instance, we may ask: “Is my knowledge of a thing just the same whenever I see it a yard or a mile away, does it matter whether I see it dimly or clearly, and so on. Obviously, these above instances seem to knock the base out of the theory and to prove that the theorem which invariably declared error to be impossible is itself erroneous. closing, we in identifying the degree of success achieved by Socrates in the attack on Protagoras’ ‘man measure’ theory, we can note that his argument against Protagoras could be described in modern terms as a triumphant exposure of subjectivism, relativism, pragmatism, or whatever be the fashionable name for plausible and shallow skepticism. In the Platonic language, it might be described as a duel between dialectic and rhetoric, appearance and reality, being and becoming or between sophistry and philosophy. In Socrates' own language, it is a demonstration that the \"truth\" of Protagoras is untrue. Perhaps it might be appropriately described as the most brilliant exhibition in the Platonic dialogues of the Socratic Method in the act of vindicating its own validity. Aristotle, with his customary penetration, has analyzed it into its elements as contained in his wellknown passage (Plato’s Metaphysics, 1978:24) he says that \"two things may fairly be ascribed to Socratesinductive arguments and universal definition, both of which are concerned with the starting-point of knowledge.\"\n \nReferences\nBurrell, P. S. (1932), Man the Measure of All Things: Socrates versus Protagoras (I) Philosophy, Vol. 7, No. 25 (Jan., 1932), pp. 27-41Published Cambridge University Press on behalf of Royal Institute of Philosophy : http://www.jstor.org/stable/3747050 . Accessed: 08/11/2012 09:26.\nJean, D. M. (2004), Rhetoric, The Measure of All Things. MLN, Vol. 119, No. 1, Italian Issue Supplement: Studia Humanitatis: Essays in Honor of Salvatore Camporeale (Jan., 2004), pp. S56-S65Published by: The Johns Hopkins University Press: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3251824 .Accessed: 08/11/2012 09:16Your\nKattsoff, L. O. (1953), Man is the Measure of all Things, Philosophy and Phenomenological Research, Vol. 13, No. 4 (Jun., 1953), pp. 452-466. Published by: International Phenomenological Society.\nLaszlo Versenyi (1962). Protagoras' Man-Measure Fragment. The American Journal of Philology, Vol. 83, No. 2 (Apr., 1962), pp. 178-184. The Johns Hopkins University Press.: http://www.jstor.org/stable/292215 .Accessed: 08/11/2012 09:21.\nOsimiri, P. (2011), “The Sophists, The golden era of wisdom and The mediaeval period of the church fathers of faith and reason in philosophy”. In Wogu, I. A. (ed). A Preface to Philosophy, Logic and Human Existence. Ota: Lulu Enterprise Inc.\nPlato, (1974), Theaetetus “Perception is always of that which exists, and since it is knowledge, cannot be false.\" And i6oC: \"Then to me my perception is true, for in each case it is always perception of what is for me.\".p 512.\nPlato, (1978). Plato’s Metaphysics, I978b, 24.",
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      "permlink": "psychological-approach",
      "title": "PSYCHOLOGICAL APPROACH",
      "body": "![download (1).png](https://cdn.steemitimages.com/DQmV52HRLUBuQo2MkLBzwQPUEcQhRh6jZ6bZGCZYJEYnNMK/download%20(1).png)\n \n Psychodynamic approach\nPsychodynamics in its broadest sense, is an approach to psychology that emphasizes systematic study of the psychological forces that underlie human behavior, feelings, and emotions and how they might relate to early experience. Sigmund Freud (1856–1939). However, it has been criticized in the way that it over emphasizes the importance of sexuality and under emphasized of the role of social relationships. \nThe biological Approach\nBiological perspective links biology and psychology by focusing on the analysis of human behavior based on biological and physical evidence. Charles Darwin(1859). These findings have helped psychiatry take off and help relieve the symptoms of the mental illness through drugs. However, Freud and other disciplines would argue that this just treats the symptoms and not the cause. \nCognitive Approach\nTo explore memory and sensory perception, to see if they are related to physiological proecces within the brain.  It also creates an assumption that behaviour can be explained through the explanation of how the mind works. In 1960, Miller founded the Center for Cognitive Studies at Harvard. Carl Rogers believes that the use of laboratory experiments by cognitive psychology have low ecological validity and create an artificial environment due to the control over variables.\nThe Behavioural approach\nThe basic understandings of this perspective are; that all behaviour is learnt, that the interaction that we have with the environment makes a person who they are. John B. Watson (1912). Behaviorism has been criticized in the way it under-estimates the complexity of human behavior.\nHumanistic approach\nThe humanistic perspective focuses on the aspects of the ‘positive image’, and what it means to humans. It emphasizes the study of the whole person. Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers and Rollo May at Old Saybrook in 1964. The humanistic perspective suggests that we are each responsible for our own happiness and well-being as humans. \n2.\nPsychoanalysis \nPsychoanalysis has great explanatory power and understanding of behavior, but is has been accused of only explaining behavior after the event, not predicting what will happen in advance and of being unfalsifiable. Some have argued that psychoanalysis has approached the status more of a religion than a science, but it is not alone in being accused of unfalsifiable (evolutionary theory has too – why is anything the way it is?\nBecause it has evolved that way!) and like theories that are difficult to refute – the possibility exists that it is actually right.\nBehavioural Perspsective\nBehaviorism has parsimonious (i.e. economical / cost cutting) theories of learning, using a few simple principles (reinforcement, behavior shaping, generalization, etc.) to explain a vast variety of behavior from language acquisition to moral development.\nIt advanced bold, precise and refutable hypotheses (such as Thorndike’s law of effect) and possessed a hard core of central assumptions such as determinism from the environment (it was only when this assumption faced overwhelming criticism by the cognitive and ethological theorists that the behaviorist paradigm / model was overthrown).\nCognitive perspective\nCognitive psychology – adopts a scientific approach to unobservable mental processes by  advancing precise models and conducting experiments upon behavior to confirm or refute them.\nFull understanding, prediction and control in psychology is probably unobtainable due to the huge complexity of environmental, mental and biological influences upon even the simplest behavior (i.e. all extraneous variables cannot be controlled).\n\n\n\n3.\nNature\nNature can be loosely defined as genetic inheritance or the genetic makeup (the information encoded in your genes) which a person inherits from both parents at the time of conception and carries throughout life.\nNurture \nNurture can be defined as the different environmental factors to which a person is subjected from birth to death. Environmental factors involve many dimensions. \nThe Influences of Nature and Nurture on Human Development\nNature is responsible for the growth of a person from the fetus level until development into a normal adult. However, it is nurture which can be utilized to improve positive traits and diminish the effect of negative traits in a child. Guidance Counselors should be employed in all schools to guide the students on study habits, career prospects and requirement for various careers.\n\n3b.\nWays to wage war against examination malpractice\nContinuous assessment should be practiced correctly. It will reduce examination malpractices as 40% of marks are accumulated from various assessment techniques such as projects and assignments before actual examinations.\nThe number of invigilators and supervisors should be increased in the exam halls. Exam officers, Vice Principals and Principals should occasionally pay visits to exam halls to observe what is going on. In this way, they could notice any cheating behaviour.\nThe students should be thoroughly searched before entering the hall. Apart from photographs, finger prints on certificates should he used for identification\nas no two persons, even identical twins could have the same finger print. That is\n why it is used in crime detection.\n \n4.\nhelp you understand yourself and other people by learning about aspects of human behaviour that will help you in daily life, including your interactions with others, your learning and memory performance, your ability to cope with pressure and your understanding of the causes of psychological disorders.\ncomplement other learning by combining Psychology with other courses. Many courses in the Faculty of Arts and Social Science, as well as those in the Australian School of Business, benefit from an understanding of human behaviour, be it social interaction, language and communication, human motivation and emotion, or the process of decision-making. Knowledge about brain function and behaviour is of considerable benefit to students studying other science degrees.\ndevelop sound analytical skills through the application of scientific method. Psychology is a science. The defining feature of any science is the objective approach that is used to advance our knowledge. In psychology we use this scientific approach to learn about behaviour and mental life. Psychology provides an excellent training in analytic thinking and scientific research methods that are applicable to a broad range of careers.\nprepare you for a career as a professional Psychologist. Psychologists work in a wide variety of different contexts, including clinical, legal, organisational, educational and research settings in both the private and public sector. The initial training required to work as a psychologist is an accredited undergraduate degree in psychology. Specialist training in different professional areas is then provided in postgraduate degrees.\n\n \nReferences\nMcLeod, S. A. (2013). Psychology perspectives. Retrieved from www.simplypsychology.org/perspective.html\nBrendl, C. M., Chattopadhyay, A., Pelham, B. W., & Carvallo, M. (2005). Name letter branding: Valence transfers when product specific needs are active. Journal of Consumer Research, 32(3), 405–415.\nChen, P.-Y., Wang, S.-C., Poland, R. E., & Lin, K.-M. (2009). Biological variations in depression and anxiety between East and West. CNS Neuroscience & Therapeutics, 15(3), 283–294.\nCutler, B. L., & Wells, G. L. (2009). Expert testimony regarding eyewitness identification. In J. L. Skeem, S. O. Lilienfeld, & K. S. Douglas (Eds.), Psychological science in the courtroom: Consensus and controversy (pp. 100–123). New York, NY: Guilford Press.\nFiske, S. T., & Taylor, S. E. (2007). Social cognition: From brains to culture. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.\nKelley, H. H. (1967). Attribution theory in social psychology. In D. Levine (Ed.), Nebraska symposium on motivation (Vol. 15, pp. 192–240). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.",
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      "title": "THE IMPERATIVE OF STATISTICS IN MATHEMATICS",
      "body": "![download (1).jpg](https://cdn.steemitimages.com/DQmP6Yku8QTWToa4KdYt7mUDmVv6oyXu94xQNo33iDcJ4KE/download%20(1).jpg)\nINTRODUCTION\nStatistics is the science concerned with developing and studying methods for collecting, analyzing, interpreting and presenting empirical data. Statistics is a highly interdisciplinary field; research in statistics finds applicability in virtually all scientific fields and research questions in the various scientific fields motivate the development of new statistical methods and theory. In developing methods and studying the theory that underlies the methods statisticians draw on a variety of mathematical and computational tools. Two fundamental ideas in the field of statistics are uncertainty and variation. There are many situations that we encounter in science (or more generally in life) in which the outcome is uncertain. In some cases the uncertainty is because the outcome in question is not determined yet (e.g., we may not know whether it will rain tomorrow) while in other cases the uncertainty is because although the outcome has been determined already we are not aware of it (e.g., we may not know whether we passed a particular exam).\nManagement (or managing) is the administration of an organization, whether it is a business, a not-for-profit organization, or government body. Management includes the activities of setting the strategy of an organization and coordinating the efforts of its employees (or of volunteers) to accomplish its objectives through the application of available resources, such as financial, natural, technological, and human resources. The term \"management\" may also refer to those people who manage an organization. Whether designing new products, streamlining a production process or evaluating current vs. prospective customers, today’s business managers face greater complexities than ever before. Running a shop on instinct no longer suffices. Statistics provide managers with more confidence in dealing with uncertainty in spite of the flood of available data, enabling managers to more quickly make smarter decisions and provide more stable leadership to staff relying on them. Whether designing new products, streamlining a production process or evaluating current vs. prospective customers, today’s business managers face greater complexities than ever before. Running a shop on instinct no longer suffices. Statistics provide managers with more confidence in dealing with uncertainty in spite of the flood of available data, enabling managers to more quickly make smarter decisions and provide more stable leadership to staff relying on them.\nFocusing on Big Picture\nStatistical analysis of a representative group of consumers can provide a reasonably accurate, cost-effective snapshot of the market with faster and cheaper statistics than attempting a census of very single customer a company may ever deal with. The statistics can also afford leadership an unbiased outlook of the market, to avoid building strategy on uncorroborated presuppositions.\nBacking Judgments\nStatistics back up assertions. Leaders can find themselves backed into a corner when persuading people to move in a direction or take a risk based on unsubstantiated opinions. Statistics can provide objective goals with stand-alone figures as well as hard evidence to substantiate positions or provide a level of certainty to directions to take the company.\nMaking Connections\nStatistics can point out relationships. A careful review of data can reveal links between two variables, such as specific sales offers and changes in revenue or dissatisfied customers and products purchased. Delving into the data further can provide more specific theories about the connections to test, which can lead to more control over customer satisfaction, repeat purchases and subsequent sales volume.\nEnsuring Quality\nAnyone who has looked into continuous improvement or quality assurance programs, such as Six Sigma or Lean Manufacturing, understands the necessity for statistics. Statistics provide the means to measure and control production processes to minimize variations, which lead to error or waste, and ensure consistency throughout the process. This saves money by reducing the materials used to make or remake products, as well as materials lost to overage and scrap, plus the cost of honoring warranties due to shipping defective products.\nConsiderations\nKnow what to measure, and manage the numbers; don’t let the numbers do the managing for you, or of you. Before using statistics, know exactly what to ask of the data. Understand what each statistical tool can and can’t measure; use several tools that complement one another. For example, don’t rely exclusively on an \"average,\" such as a mean rating. Customers using a five-point scale to rate satisfaction won’t give you a 3.84; that may indicate how the audience as a group clustered, but it’s also important to understand the width of the spread using standard deviation or which score was used by the greatest number of people, by noting the mode. Finally, double-check the statistics by perusing the data, particularly its source, to get a sense of why the audiences surveyed answered the way they did. Business owners face many situations with outcomes that seem unpredictable. For example, your main supplier of a key batch of parts could have a lower cost, but more uncertainty in delivery time. Data and statistics can be used to concretely define and measure this uncertainty and predict when the next shipment is coming. Managerial decision-making with this statistical insight can avoid steering production, costs and customer service into bad avenues.\nOperational Value\nMany businesses rely on their Information Technology (IT) systems to manage data, facilitate payments and run operations. Unforeseen bottlenecks can occur when IT runs a necessary system upgrade, if the implementation stalls and temporarily keeps your business from running smoothly. To combat this, some IT systems have statistical algorithms that find the likely cause for the blockage before your business hits a dead end. Other operational benefits of statistics are accurate demand forecasting and sufficient inventory planning.\nStrategic Value\nIn steering the direction of your business, statistics can be used to guide long-term forecasts for strategic planning. Analytical methods like statistics support the understanding of the holistic impact that strategic initiatives can have on your business. For example, a statistical model can provide a baseline forecast of your revenues and expenses for years to come, which your team can adjust depending on new product introductions, new markets and competitor activities.\nResearch Value\nInstead of repeatedly reacting to lost sales from insufficient inventory, you can use statistics to learn about your customer’s behavior like how they react to promotions and when and what they buy. These research studies allow businesses to be proactive through predicting customer behavior and creating better marketing plans. Moreover, statistics can be used in the development and pricing of new products via survey analysis and regression models.\nSoftware\nData is abundant for many types of businesses. Whether you seek demographic, attitudinal, or psychographic data, statistics can be used to discover insights from mining the data. For example, the accessibility of statistical tools in low-cost spreadsheet software makes discovering important insights within reach for any business, no matter the size.\nStatistics aiding in the focused strategy\nThe statistics have always been the right tool to incorporate the focused strategy for the management. For example, the management wants to enhance the brand image of a particular product. The brand image is dependent on various factors like perception, satisfaction of the product, service provided, style, association, etc. There may be a lot of factors to look at. Moreover the organization may have a huge set of samples from a survey. So the priority would be to reduce the no of factors and the huge samples to manageable ones which helps in optimization of cost as well. The factor analysis reduces the number of factors and the cluster analysis reduces the number of observations. Then by removing the insignificant variables and combining the variables having high multicollinearity, a regression could be carried out with the brand image being the dependent variable. Thus the management has i) the significant variables to look at and ii) The choice of the combination of various independent variables for the desired level of the dependent variable. Thus it will help the management to incorporate a combination from these choices that fulfills the management objective. This helps the management to establish a focused strategy with the help of effective statistical tool and technique.\nInterpretation of the output of the analysis\n The most important aspect of statistics is the interpretation of the statistical outputs and the results to the mode easily understood by the management executives. The resistance against using statistical tools has been the difficulty to understand the outputs easily. The challenge of an analyst or a management executive is to understand the interpretation and the associated assumption fully and make it easily understandable for other executives. For example the standard error of the regression of the brand image in the previous example is say 0.15. This doesn’t mean that for each observation or each sample it will produce an error of 0.15 only. This merely means that if all the samples are taken and regressed the average error of all those samples together is 0.15. Thus for a particular case the error can be more than 0.15. If this interpretation is not known it will overestimate or underestimate the risk.\nStatistical Tools Used in the various management decisions\nLogistic regression is used in the credit approval industry, admission in an academic institution or indecisions where there is a binary choice of yes or no i.e. 1 or 0 is required. The logistic regression issued to predict if a particular observation using the initial behavioral patterns would fall in the yes or no region in future.\nRegression Analysis is used to predict some continuous variables based on the initial independent variables like the revenue, sales, brand image, budget cost, etc.\nCluster Analysis and factor analysis is used for segmentation objectives.\n Discriminant analysis is used for zeroing on factors helping in discrimination of the various observations into various categories. It also predicts in which category a particular observation would fall. Various other statistical models like ANOVA, ANCOVA, Time Series models like ARIMA and other multivariate analysis are used for different management objectives and problems.\nIndexes of Inflation and Living Costs\nAnalyses of budgetary trends from year to year for a given library are often thwarted by the eroding effects of inflation on the library's purchasing power. This is especially true where library materials are concerned. Book prices are inflated at a higher rate than general consumer prices, and periodical prices are inflated at an even higher rate than books. Library managers cannot afford to overlook these facts in making budget decisions. Comparisons of salaries from library to library are thwarted similarly because living costs can vary dramatically from place to place. So, library managers must also be prepared to adjust such figures for differences in living costs. The index used most commonly to assess inflation is the consumer price index (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1992). But this index is inadequate for most library purposes because it underestimates sometimes grossly the impact of inflation on materials budgets. There are many different sources of average materials prices and price indexes. These include annual articles on books (Grannis, 1991b) and periodicals (Carpenter & Alexander, 1991), which provide the most current data, as well as reports of recent figures in the Bowker Annual (Bentley, 1991; Grannis, 1991a). Managers of different types of libraries also have their own indexes to draw upon. Research Associates of Washington publishes the Higher Education Price Index and the Elementary-Secondary School Price Index (Research Associates of Washington, 1991; also Halstead, 1991). The former contains a sub-index, the Library Price Index, which itself contains separate index scores for different portions of an academic library budget (e.g., staff, materials, equipment, and contracted services). The latter contains sub-indexes for librarians (i.e., library media specialists) and materials by level (i.e., elementary or secondary) and format (e.g., books, periodicals, cassettes). There is no comparable index of prices for public libraries. However, the Library Research Center at the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, produces the Index of American Public Library Expenditures annually (Palmer, 1991). This index is not nearly so pure a measure of inflation as the others, but it does break out comparable index scores for staff, materials, and other expenses. Despite a common misconception, the consumer price index does not provide a basis for comparing living costs from place to place. For an index of cost of living, library managers must turn to the American Chamber of Commerce Researchers Association (American Chamber of Commerce Researchers Association [ACCRA], 1991), which publishes a quarterly cost-of-living index for all urban areas in the United States. (Sample uses of all of these indexes will be described later.) Notably, ACCRA'S monopoly in this area is about to be challenged by Research Associates of Washington (1992), which is publishing its own annual cost-of-living index report.\nThis paradigm believes that the only knowledge (knowledge) is valid is the science of knowledge (science), that is knowledge which originated and is based on experience (experience) are caught and processed through the senses by reason (reason). Therefore, in practice, research with this quantitative approach to give meaning through interpretation of statistical figures or not through language or culture. \nStatistics in quantitative research approach is one of the main components in the research stages, ranging from the preparation of research, data collection techniques, data processing until the effort to make the decisions / conclusions scientifically. Thus the statistics in the study with quantitative approach has a fairly dominant role in expediting the achievement of research objectives. \n\nWith regard to the role of these statistics, then at least there are four roles in research, among others: \n\nFirst, the role of statistics in the Determination of Sample Research. The purpose of sampling techniques is to produce a representative sample of the population and obtain an adequate sample size to do the research. In relation to this role, statistics provides techniques and specific formulas in order to obtain samples representatives and adequate sample size. \n\nSecond, the role of statistics in the development of data retrieval tool. Before a person uses a device maker the data, he must have the assurance that the device he uses it with quality. The quality of data collection tools can be viewed from the side of validity and reliability. Therefore each data collection tools need to be tested by validitas and reliability, and the best way to test validates and reliability of data collection tools is to use statistical methods. \n\nThird, the role of statistics in a Presenting data. Data collected through specific data collection technique is still raw data, therefore, that data was more communicative it must be presented in such a way that data is easy to read or understood. In connection with efforts to display the data to be easily read and understood, then the statistics provide specific techniques in processing data and presenting data, with descriptive statistical methods. \n\nFourth, the role of Statistics in Data Analysis or Testing Hypotheses. The ultimate goal in research is the conclusion as an ingredient to make a decision. In order to obtain results valid and reliable research, statistics have also developed a specific calculation technique and develop various methods to test hypotheses that could help researchers. Statistical analysis of data that discuss or test this hypothesis is inferential statistical methods.\nGrowth of the mass production industries has posed new and complex problems in industrial management. Scientific solution of these problems necessitates statistical analysis of the vast quantities of data generated in these industries as a by-product. To date, selected but limited headway has been made in using these data to solve the problems of industrial management.\nImprovements bordering on the spectacular have been achieved in selected instances of industrial applications of statistical analysis. Quality control and market research afford two such instances. \nConclusion\nThese improvements have been mainly the result of commencing to use facts at all (to replace hunch) rather than the result of superior analysis of data long utilized. In consequence, these pioneering adventures in industrial applications of statistics have been made largely without the aid of statisticians.\nHowever, the great need for science in management, and the presence of vast quantities of data on which to base a science, suggest that industry will use trained statisticians in increasing numbers, to the extent that the professional statistical societies can do much to aid the industry may become a principal employer of statisticians greater utilization of statistics in industry by:\n(a). organizing in each society major division to deal with the problems of statistics in industry.\n(b). sponsoring joint meetings with societies of managers, industrial engineers, and others interested in industrial statistics.\n(c). injecting into the current literature and into the statistical text-books, cases and problems drawn from industry.\n(d). research to develop new statistical tools, and to simplify existing tools for use by industrial personnel.\n(e). recognizing useful work in industrial statistics through honors and awards",
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      "body": "![download.jpg](https://cdn.steemitimages.com/DQmUqSLSm2TNFgVrvXK26rGs8BfjwvJgFxSVY7iFtJUPHkb/download.jpg)\n1.\npsychology is the science of behavior and mental processes. This means that psychologists use the methods of science to investigate all kinds of behavior and mental processes from the activity of a single cell to the social conflicts in a complex society.\nThese are the different approach to psychology and its subfields;\nExperimental psychology: Willhelm Wundt and other early psychologist such as Edward Titchener and Hermann Ebbinghaus, used the term ‘experimental psychology’ to distinguish their laboratory works from the endeavors of philosophers and others who thought and speculated about consciousness, memory and other psychological matters but performed no experiments.\nHumanistic psychology(1950-present): humanism is a theoretical orientation that emphasizes the unique qualities of humans, especially their freedom and potentials for personal growth. Humanist take an optimist view of human nature. They maintain that people are not pawn of either their animal heritage or environmental circumstances. The most prominent architects of the humanistic movement have been Carl Rogers(1902-1987) and Abraham Maslow(1908-1970).\nCognitive psychology(1950s-present): cognitive refers to the mental process involved in acquiring knowledge. In other words cognition involve thinking or conscious experience. The principal contributors are Jean Plaget, Noam Chomsky, Herbert Simon.\nEvolutionary psychology(1980s-present): it examines behavioral process in terms of their adaptive value for members of a species over the course of many generations. The basic premises of evolutionary psychology is that natural selection favor behavior that enhance organisms’ reproductive success. That is, passing on genes to the next generation. The principal contributors of evolutionary psychology are David Buss, Martin Daly, Margo Wilson, Leda Cosmides, John Tooby.\nPsychoanalytic(1900-present): psychoanalytic theory attempts to explain personality, motivation and mental disorders by focusing on unconscious determinants of behavior. The principal contributors are Sigmund Freud, Carl Jung, Alfred Adler; and the subject matter is unconscious determinants of behavior. \n\n2.\nPsychology is a discipline which seeks to study the thoughts and actions of man (as well as the behavior of animals) in a specific way. If one is to understand exactly what this means a clear definition of science is required. Science is a marvelous development in the history of human thought. It has wrought amazing benefits and wonders for the modern world. Using science as a tool man has been able to unlock innumerable mysteries. In turn these discoveries coupled with reflected technological advances have allowed a tremendous degree of dominion over the physical world. It is indeed an age of miracles. What is that tool called “science” which has allowed such developments? Stated in its most basic form, science might be defined as a “closer and more careful look”. Abraham Kaplan has defined as follows:\n\tScientific observation is deliberate search carried out with care and forethought, as contrasted with the casual and largely passive perceptions of everyday life. It is this deliberateness and control of the process of observation that is distinctive of science. Competing school of thoughts exist in most scientific disciplines. Sometimes the disagreement between this schools are sharp.\n\tIn psychology, the first two major schools of thought ‘structuralism and functionalism’ were involved in a first great intellectual battle in the field. Structuralism emerged through the leadership of  Edward Titchener, an English man who taught at Cornell university for decades in 1892. It was based on the notion that the task of psychology is to analysis consciousness to its basic elements and investigate how this elements are related. Just as physicists were  studying how matter is made of different particles, the structuralist wanted to  identify the fundamental components of conscious experience, such as sensations, feelings and images. The structuralists depended on the method of introspection, or the careful, systematic observation of one’s own conscious experience. Introspection required training to make the subject-the person being studied-more objective  and more aware.\n\n\n\n3.\n\tIn Sigmund Freud’s theory, development was not simply the result of beginning growth towards maturity, as Gesell suggested, nor was it due solely to environmental experiences, as Watson claimed. Instead said Freud, it was the product of both internal urges and external conditions, particularly children’s sexual and aggressive urges and how parents handle them. His theory incorporated both nature and nurture.\n\tHow much nature and nurture contribute varies from one characteristics to another. Hereditary shapes, physical size and appearance, motor development is also to a large extent under genetic control. The sequence of motor development appears in the same order in all infants, if at slightly different ages. Then during childhood, motor skills development according to a maturational timetable that is helped along by experience. Six years old are inevitably taller, stronger and better coordinated than from the very beginning by the environment than physical and motor development.\n\tAlthough some human characteristics are more influenced by the environment and other more influenced by heredity, nature and nurture are inextricably intertwined. The environment encourages or discourages the expression of an individual’s genetic potentials; at the same time inherited characteristics affects the environments..",
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      "body": "![retail-word-cloud-business-concept-clip-art-vector_csp50409361.jpg](https://cdn.steemitimages.com/DQmbKYmoW2NqLuyqvmA2HivKGAFkoAyuRPxNigqUyh9xQAL/retail-word-cloud-business-concept-clip-art-vector_csp50409361.jpg)\nCONCEPT OF RETAILING\nIntroduction \nThe word 'Retail' is derived from a French word with the prefix re and the verb tailer meaning \"to cut again\". Evidently, retail trade is one that cuts off smaller portions from large lumps of goods. It is a process through which goods are transported to final consumers. In other words, retailing consists of the activities involved in selling directly to the ultimate consumer for personal, non-business use. It embraces the direct-to-customer sales activities of the producer, whether through his own stores by house-to-house canvassing or by mail-order business. \nManufacturers engage in retailing when they make direct-to-consumer sales of their products through their own stores (as Bata and Carona shoe companies, D.C.M. Stores, Mafatlals and Bombay Dyeing) by door-to-door canvass, or mail order or even on telephone. Even a wholesaler engages in retailing when sells directly to an ultimate consumer, although his main business may still be wholesaling. \nA retailer is a merchant or occasionally an agent or a business enterprise, whose main business is selling directly to ultimate consumers for non-business use. He performs many marketing activities such as buying, selling, grading, risk-trading, and developing information about cusotmer's wants. Aretailer may sell infrequently to industrial users, but these are wholesale transactions, not retail sales. If over one half of the amount of volume of business comes from sales to ultimate consumers, i.e. sales at retail, he is classified as a retailer. Retailing occurs in all marketing channels for consumer products. \nImportance of Retailing \nThe retailer is an intermediary in the marketing channel because he is both marketer and customer, who sells to the last man to consume. He is a specialist who maintains contact with the consumer and the producer; and is an important connecting link in a complex mechanism of marketing. Though producers may sell directly to consumers, such method of distributing goods to ultimate users is inconvenient, expensive and time consuming as compared to the job performed by a specialist in the line. Therefore, frequently the manufacturers depend on the retailers to sell their products to the ultimate consumers. The retailer, who is able to provide appropriate amenities without an excessive advance in prices of goods is rewarded by larger or more loyal patronage. \nEconomic Justification for retailing \nAll middlemen basically serve as purchasing agents for their customers and as sales specialists for their suppliers. To carry out those roles, retailers perform many activities, including anticipating customer's wants, developing assortments of products, acquiring market information and financing. \nIt is relatively easy to become a retailer. No large investment in production equipment is required, merchandise can often be purchased on credit and store space can be leased with no 'down payment' or a simple website can be set up at relatively little cost. Considering these factors, perhaps it's not surprising that there are just over a 6 million retail outlets operating across the Indian cities from north to south and from east to west. This large number of outlets, many of which are trying to serve and satisfy the same market segments, results in fierce competition and better values for shoppers. \nTo enter retailing is easy; to fail is even easier! To survive in retailing, a firm must do a satisfactory job in its primary role - catering to consumers. Rama Subramaniam the former head - retail segment Spensors described a successful retailer as a \"merchant who sells goods that won't come back to customers who will\". Of course, a retail firm also must fulfill its other role - serving producers and wholesalers. This dual role is both the justification for retailing and the key to success in retailing. \n\nGENERAL SERVICES \nThe general services which a retailer provides are: \n1. The retailer anticipates the wants of the consumers and then supplies them the right kind of goods at reasonable price. His job is to make the consumers buying as easy and convenient as possible i.e. he acts as a consumers' agent. \n2. He performs the service of bulk-breaking i.e. dividing large quantities into small units, such as individual cans, bottles, boxes, wrappers, packages, appropriate for consumer use. \n3. He offers a large assortment of merchandise, of suitable size, colour, design, style and seasonal items-ranging from domestic utensils, household requisites to speciality goods. \n4. He creates time and place utility by storing the products in off season and by transporting these goods to the places where they can be readily available as and when needed by the consumer. \n5. He also assumes risks by guaranteeing the goods he sells to the consumer. \n6. He also offers free delivery of goods, credit on open accounts, free alteration, liberal exchange facilities, instructions in the use of goods, revolving credit plans, and long term instalment programmes. \n7. He adds to the convenience and ease of consumer purchasing by offering convenient shopping locations, market informations and other services such as free parking privileges, lessons on product use and a multitude of other facilities may be offered and found sufficiently desired to result in increased patronage. \n8. He helps the producers in distributing their products by using advertisement display and personal selling. \n9. The level of retail sales is one of the most useful barometers of the nations economic health. For example when sales of cycles pick-up, sales of steel and components also increase, as does employment and thus increasing purchasing power. But when sales go down, manufacturers cut back production, unemployment increases and retail sales also goes down.\nFacilitating Services: \nIn order to carry out functions involving transfer of ownership and physical supply effectively retailers perform a number of facilitating functions i.e. functions relating to standardisation and grading, financing, risk-taking and market information. \nA retailer of fresh fruits and vegetables has to standardise and grade these to make these acceptable to customers. They establish standards, inspect goods they receive, and sort them in various classifications.\nRetailing is the sale of goods and services to ultimate consumers for personal, non-business use. Any institution may engage in retailing, but a firm engage primarily in retailing is called a retailer. Retailers serve as purchasing agents for consumer and as sales specialists for producers and wholesaling middleman. 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      "body": "CONCEPT OF RETAILING\nIntroduction \nThe word 'Retail' is derived from a French word with the prefix re and the verb tailer meaning \"to cut again\". Evidently, retail trade is one that cuts off smaller portions from large lumps of goods. It is a process through which goods are transported to final consumers. In other words, retailing consists of the activities involved in selling directly to the ultimate consumer for personal, non-business use. It embraces the direct-to-customer sales activities of the producer, whether through his own stores by house-to-house canvassing or by mail-order business. \nManufacturers engage in retailing when they make direct-to-consumer sales of their products through their own stores (as Bata and Carona shoe companies, D.C.M. Stores, Mafatlals and Bombay Dyeing) by door-to-door canvass, or mail order or even on telephone. 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      "parent_permlink": "nature",
      "author": "udemejames",
      "permlink": "talking-about-anxiety-disorder",
      "title": "Talking about Anxiety Disorder",
      "body": "![image.jpg](https://cdn.steemitimages.com/DQmWGEZCaTxeTnW1pvDUv3EivxGZCkMi2fTdmLT9USuRxjc/image.jpg)\nWhat Are Anxiety Disorders?\n\nEveryone feels anxious now and then. It’s a normal emotion. For example, you may feel nervous when faced with a problem at work, before taking a test, or before making an important decision.\n\nAnxiety disorders are different, though. They are a group of mental illnesses, and the distress they cause can keep you from carrying on with your life normally.\n\n\nFor people who have one, worry and fear are constant and overwhelming, and can be disabling. But with treatment, many people can manage those feelings and get back to a fulfilling life.\n\nTypes of Disorders\n\nAnxiety disorder is an umbrella term that includes different conditions:\n\nPanic disorder: You feel terror that strikes at random. During a panic attack, you may also sweat, have chest pain, and feel palpitations (unusually strong or irregular heartbeats). Sometimes you may feel like you’re choking or having a heart attack.\n\nSocial anxiety disorder: Also called social phobia, this is when you feel overwhelming worry and self-consciousness about everyday social situations. You fixate about others judging you or on being embarrassed or ridiculed.\n\nSpecific phobias: You feel intense fear of a specific object or situation, such as heights or flying. The fear goes beyond what’s appropriate and may cause you to avoid ordinary situations.\n\nGeneralized anxiety disorder: You feel excessive, unrealistic worry and tension with little or no reason.\n \n\nSymptoms\n\nAll anxiety disorders share some general symptoms:\n\n•Panic, fear, and uneasiness\n•Sleep problems\n•Not being able to stay calm and still\n•Cold, sweaty, numb or tingling hands or feet\n•Shortness of breath\n•Heart palpitations\n•Dry mouth\n•Nausea\n•Tense muscles\n•Dizziness\n\n\nCauses\n\nResearchers don’t know exactly what brings on anxiety disorders. Like other forms of mental illness, they stem from a combination of things, including changes in your brain and environmental stress, and even your genes. The disorders can run in families and could be linked to faulty circuits in the brain that control fear and other emotions.\n\n\nDiagnosis\n\nIf you have symptoms, your doctor will examine you and ask for your medical history. She may run tests to rule out medical illnesses that might be causing your symptoms. No lab tests can specifically diagnose anxiety disorders.\n\nIf your doctor doesn’t find any medical reason for how you’re feeling, she may send you to a psychiatrist, psychologist, or another mental health specialist. Those doctors will ask you questions and use tools and testing to find out if you may have an anxiety disorder.\n\nYour doctor will consider how long and how intense your symptoms are when diagnosing you. She’ll also check to see if the symptoms keep you from carrying out your normal activities.\n\n\nTreatments\n\nMost people with the condition try one or more of these therapies:\n\nMedication: Many antidepressants can work for anxiety disorders. They include escitalopram (Lexapro) and fluoxetine (Prozac). Certain anticonvulsant medicines (typically taken for epilepsy) and low-dose antipsychotic drugs can be added to help make other treatments work better. Anxiolytics are also drugs that help lower anxiety. Examples are alprazolam (Xanax) and clonazepam (Klonopin). They’re prescribed for social or generalized anxiety disorder as well as for panic attacks.\n\nPsychotherapy: This is a type of counseling that addresses the emotional response to mental illness. A mental health specialist helps you by talking about how to understand and deal with your anxiety disorder.\n\nCognitive behavioral therapy: This is a certain type of psychotherapy that teaches you how to recognize and change thought patterns and behaviors that trigger deep anxiety or panic.\n \n\nManaging Symptoms\n\nThese tips may help you control or lessen your symptoms:\n\nCut down on foods and drinks that have caffeine, such as coffee, tea, cola, energy drinks, and chocolate. Caffeine is a mood-altering drug, and it may make symptoms of anxiety disorders worse.\nEat right, exercise, and get better sleep. Brisk aerobic exercises like jogging and biking help release brain chemicals that cut stress and improve your mood.\nSleep problems and anxiety disorder often go hand in hand. Make getting good rest a priority. Follow a relaxing bedtime routine. Talk to your doctor if you still have trouble sleeping.\nAsk your doctor or pharmacist before taking any over-the-counter meds or herbal remedies. Many contain chemicals that can make anxiety symptoms worse.",
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      "body": "Hi! I am a robot. I just upvoted you! I found similar content that readers might be interested in:\nhttps://blog.cex.io/bitcoin-talks/6-ways-to-earn-bitcoins-online-13746",
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      "author": "udemejames",
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      "title": "How to earn Bitcoin",
      "body": "Every day, Bitcoin the cryptocurrency and Bitcoin the technology gets more popular. When in 2011 you had to write a person from the other continent to order a pizza for you with Bitcoins, now you can do something like that in a number of major cities. In some countries like the Netherlands, the entire towns are Bitcoin-friendly (such as Arnhem, often called ‘the Bitcoin city’) now with a range of services available for those who are willing to pay with BTC. The more ways are there to spend the cryptocurrency, the more ways are there to obtain them. Let us look at some of the approaches to help you earn Bitcoins online.\n\n1. Mine your own Bitcoins\nThe very first way to get your own Bitcoins was through mining. In 2009, every block mined (every 10 minutes on average) brought a reward of 50 BTC to the lucky one who managed to solve the computational problem. Right now, every block brings 12,5 BTC. While the reward is still luring, there are some issues which stand in the way of earning some loot:\n1.The hashing difficulty has grown significantly over the last years. No single equipment has enough computational power to compete for Bitcoins.\n2.Mining has gotten unprofitable.\n3.In hope for some reward, people are forced to unite in pools or use cloud mining services.\n4.Even when the efforts are combined, there is still need to pay for the electricity, and the utility bills often exceed the mining reward.\nAll these factors make Bitcoin mining these days unprofitable. This makes us move forward to the next strategy of earning Bitcoins online.\n\n2. Do work for Bitcoins\nIf mining is not for you, you can search for work that you can do for Bitcoins. There are multiple services that will offer one an opportunity to work for cryptocurrency. You can find something at Coinality or by just going to /r/Jobs4Bitcoins on Reddit. Currently, you can earn Bitcoins online as a freelancer mainly, but some Bitcoin startups and companies like Overstock offer an option to get the regular payment in BTC. With greater acceptance, there will be more options to look for.\n\n3. Offer something for Bitcoins\nAnother way to earn Bitcoins online is to sell something for crypto. If you are keen on handmade, you can accept BTC on your ETSY page, and if you are a merchant, you can use your Bitcoin address to accept Bitcoins payment on your website. You can also hang a “Bitcoin Accepted Here” sign at your hotel, restaurant, café etc.\n\n4. Gambling and casino games\nIf you are searching for a simple way to earn Bitcoins online, you may try gambling. However, while it might seem to you as easy money, gaming has a number of risks which need to be taken into account. In the following article, we have outlined for you some websites worth checking out when trying out your luck: Bitcoin Gambling. We don’t guarantee that you win, which is why we strongly recommend you to play only if you have some initial capital to spend. On the other hand, who knows, maybe you will get lucky and multiply your crypto.\n\n5. Use various Bitcoin faucets\nWe have already mentioned gambling and faucets in a recent article. What you need to know about Bitcoin faucets is that they allow you to get a small amount of cryptocurrency in particular time spans. For example, on many Bitcoin dice websites you can get 0.0001 BTC every 5 minutes. However, to get a new portion of satoshis, you need to have a zero balance. There are other options too where you can earn ‘Bitcoin dust’ for time spent on the website (for example, when playing games). You cannot gain much here, but sometimes it can be enough to get a feeling of owning some crypto.\n\n6. Boost your trading skills\nA good way to make an earning with Bitcoin and cryptocurrency in g![image.jpg](https://cdn.steemitimages.com/DQmXXsKWBZxWheXeSQZuf9HBCFCXwrrs2CmeXNjDfUCNiC8/image.jpg)eneral is to do it through trading. CEX.IO allows you buying Bitcoins with payment cards or via bank transfer, after which you can convert it to other crypto or fiat using the price volatility at your advantage. Sometimes, however, Bitcoin trading can be very similar to gambling – high risks are involved here too. In order to minimise them, you need to learn a bit about trading. You may follow our blog to get some trading tips. Meanwhile, you can start with our 3 tips for profitable trading and then explore our trading category. Just start with a little amount, and when you feel more confident, you will be able to get to bigger earnings.\nEarning Bitcoins online: Summary\nThere are quite a few ways to earn Bitcoins online, and they are all different. Some of them, such as gambling, or trading, involve risks. However, while in gambling everything depends mainly on luck, trading requires some substantial knowledge. You can stay tuned for our tips on how to not just earn your Bitcoins, but to multiply it.\nRegardless of what strategy you choose, you still have to find a secure place to buy, sell, and store your Bitcoins. CEX.IO has been a well-known player on the Bitcoin market since 2013, offers a user-friendly service for buying, selling, trading, and keeping Bitcoins secure. None of its users has ever experienced account funds theft, and, all in all, CEX.IO deserves to be one of the best Bitcoin services known so far.",
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