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      "body": "I'm an instrumentation technician.  We use venturi tubes, orifice plates and flow nozzles for flow measurement.  Most of the equipment I've worked with applies to the oil and gas industry. \n\nIt's good to see some STEM posts popping up.  I rarely see anything that has to do with my line of work.  Nice post.",
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      "permlink": "flow-measurement-venturi-tube",
      "title": "Flow measurement: Venturi tube",
      "body": "<div class=\"text-justify\">\n\nAlmost all the machines and instruments that we use in our homes respond to certain principles of physics. There are numerous machines that help us to carry out our daily work, facilitating the task and relieving weights, that if it were otherwise, it would be impossible for us to handle it. There are also small tools that we often use in our homes, such as sprayers, which are used either to spray water with something or to fumigate the house and eliminate insects.\n\nThe principle of operation of many tools we do not know but we use it so that our daily task is the most pleasant every day.\n\nAn important application of Bernoulli's theorem is called a Venturi tube, which consists of a horizontal tube that has been narrowed gradually, whose practical application is the measurement of the fluid velocity in a pipe.\n\nIt bears the name of its discoverer, the physicist Giovanni Battista Venturi, and its operation has much to do with the Bernoulli Principle, another physicist, in this Swiss case, which roughly explains to us that throughout a duct, an ideal fluid (without viscosity or friction), keeps the same energy at all times.\n\nBut back to the Venturi, what is it based on? Imagine that we have a tube through which a fluid circulates. In one of its sections, there is a narrowing. Well, in the interval of time that passes through that area, the fluid will do so at a higher speed and exerting less pressure than when it does it through the \"normal\" part of the conduit. If in that thinnest section we made a graft with another tube, we could check that there would be a suction towards the main conduit.\n \n\n<center>![](https://steemitimages.com/DQmeFWCJVbXyQAdJueAuV3XLvLvB2xgY1K31xXs58zSj3Wv/imagen.png)\n [Source](http://images.slideplayer.com/18/6149411/slides/slide_13.jpg)\n</center>\n\n\n# The Venturi tube\n\nA Venturi tube is a device initially designed to measure the velocity of a fluid. However, some are used to accelerate the velocity of a fluid by forcing it to pass through a narrow tube in the shape of a cone. The classic application of speed measurement of a fluid consists of a tube formed by two conical sections joined by a narrow tube in which the fluid moves consequently at a higher speed. The pressure in the Venturi tube can be measured by a U-shaped vertical tube connecting the wide region and the narrow channel. The difference in liquid heights in the U-tube makes it possible to measure the pressure at both points and consequently the speed. When using a Venturi tube, a phenomenon called cavitation must be taken into account. This phenomenon occurs if the pressure in some section of the tube is less than the vapor pressure of the fluid. For this particular type of tube, the risk of cavitation is in the throat of the same, since here, as the area is minimal and the speed is maximum, the pressure is the lowest that can be found in the tube. When cavitation occurs, bubbles are generated locally, which travel along the tube. If these bubbles reach areas of higher pressure, they can collapse thus producing local pressure peaks with the potential risk of damaging the tube wall.\n \n<center>![](https://steemitimages.com/DQmPDcfYEu9Y3WtaUBknxP5KXCp35NfNX47r9MMM33C8Egb/imagen.png)\n[Source](http://www.emcocontrols.com/files/emcobilleder/flow/kvrsnit2.jpg)\n</center>\n\n# Operation of a venturi tube\n\nThe Venturi Tube is a device that causes a loss of pressure when a fluid passes through it. In essence, this is a straight short pipe, or throat, between two conical sections. The pressure varies in the vicinity of the narrow section; thus, when placing a manometer or recording instrument in the throat, the pressure drop can be measured and the instantaneous flow can be calculated, or, joining it to a fuel tank, this fuel can be introduced into the main stream.\n\nThe dimensions of the Venturi Tube for flow measurement, as established by Clemens Herschel, are usually those indicated in Figure 1. The inlet is a straight short pipe of the same diameter as the pipe to which it is attached.\nThe entrance cone, which forms the angle a1, leads through a smooth curve to the throat of diameter d1. A long divergent cone, which has an angle a2, restores the pressure and expands the fluid to the full diameter of the pipe. The diameter of the throat varies from one third to three quarters of the diameter of the pipe.\n\n <center>![](https://steemitimages.com/DQmQAv45xGL2ggDnPibK3bScqFXZ7CWX6Ny2D8keDDWHwqr/imagen.png)\n [Source](http://www.efunda.com/formulae/fluids/images/DP_Venturi_cal.gif)\n</center>\n\nThe pressure that precedes the inlet cone is transmitted through multiple openings to an annular opening called piezometric ring. Similarly, the pressure in the throat is transmitted to another piezometric ring. A single pressure line exits each ring and is connected to a pressure gauge or recorder. In some designs the piezometric rings are replaced by simple pressure joints leading to the inlet pipe and throat.\n\nThe main advantage of the Venturi is that it only loses 10 - 20% of the pressure difference between the entrance and the throat. This is achieved by the divergent cone that decelerates the current.\n\nIt is important to know the relationship that exists between the different diameters that the tube has, since depending on them it is that the desired pressure will be obtained at the entrance and exit of the same so that it can fulfill the function for which it is built.  This ratio of diameters and distances is the basis to perform the calculations for the construction of a Venturi Tube and with the knowledge of the flow that you want to pass through it.\n\nDeducting it can be said that a typical Venturi Tube consists, as already mentioned, of a cylindrical intake, a convergent cone, a throat and a divergent cone. The convergent entrance has an included angle of around 21º, and the divergent cone of 7º to 8º. The purpose of the divergent cone is to reduce the overall loss of pressure in the meter; its elimination will have no effect on the discharge coefficient. Pressure is detected through a series of holes in the admission and throat; these holes lead to an angular chamber, and the two chambers are connected to a pressure differential sensor.\n\nIn the Venturi Tube the flow from the main pipe in section 1 is accelerated through the narrow section called throat, where the fluid pressure decreases. The flow is then expanded through the diverging portion to the same diameter as the main pipe. In the wall of the pipe in section 1 and in the wall of the throat, which we will call section 2, are located pressure ramifiers. These are attached to the two sides of a differential pressure gauge in such a way that the deflection h is an indication of the pressure difference p1 - p2. Of course, other types of differential pressure gauges can be used.\nThe energy equation and the continuity equation can be used to derive the relationship through which we can calculate the velocity of the flow. Using sections 1 and 2 in formula 2 as reference points, we can write the following equations:\n\n \n ![](https://steemitimages.com/DQmYmBKL1HpAy78Te2iKs83YN41LbuEe1VJzswgeRsxoU98/imagen.png)(1)\n\nQ = A1v1 = A2v2  (2)\n\nThese equations are valid only for incomprehensible fluids, in the case of liquids. For the flow of gases, we must pay special attention to the variation of specific weight  with pressure. The algebraic reduction of equations 1 and 2 is as follows:\n \n![](https://steemitimages.com/DQmTkLv4pM3XTSeB1k9ugwJ5KCYTVmFzApm6aU6oz6mGoHu/imagen.png)\n\nTwo simplifications can be carried out at this time. First, the difference in elevation (z1-z2) is very small, even when the meter is installed vertically. Therefore, this term is despised. Second, the term hl is the loss of fluid energy as it flows from section 1 to section 2.\n\nThe hl value must be determined experimentally. But it is more convenient to modify the equation (3) by eliminating h1 and introducing a discharge coefficient C:\n\n ![](https://steemitimages.com/DQmVhRQrL5t89Ci7HfmsYzN68j5YTEjYDux1XSw5Qs7cUb3/imagen.png)\n\nEquation (4) can be used to calculate the flow velocity in the throat of the meter. However, it is usually desired to calculate the volume flow rate. Since, we have:\n \n![](https://steemitimages.com/DQmdUzjEMLAQrCiPmw6J8MZS9914rTWKzYNq2ddxhyHKuZJ/imagen.png)\n\nThe value of the coefficient C depends on the Reynolds number of the flow and the actual geometry of the meter. The following figure shows a typical curve of C Vs Reynolds number in the main pipe.\n\n \n<center>![](https://steemitimages.com/DQmdsWpqnarsqW9WxvCQnBzPTe4pvLDz6vmqqFsgDw5SEwe/imagen.png)\n [Source](http://uorepc-nitk.vlabs.ac.in/images/fvm2.gif)\n</center>\n\nReference 3 recommends that C = 0.984 for a Venturi pipe manufactured or cast with the following conditions:\n\n![](https://steemitimages.com/DQmTfPaLNmXsLVootFmAKdiSiFhY8ir3SDdvJYsokZ2MVub/imagen.png)\n \n# Technological aplications of a venturi tube \nThe Venturi Tube can have many applications among which we can mention:\n\n- In the Automotive Industry:\n\nIn the car's carburetor, the use of it can be observed in what is Fuel Fuel. The engines require air and fuel to operate. A liter of gasoline needs approximately 10,000 liters of air to burn, and there must be some metering mechanism that allows the mixture to enter the engine in the correct proportion. This doser is called a carburetor, and is based on the Venturi principle: by varying the inside diameter of a pipe, the speed of the air passage is increased.\n\n <center>![](https://steemitimages.com/DQmVtoRqMQDzRmNZAobZ1Qn3haUTWyNptXu2rjxJy4Bxzu9/imagen.png)\n [Source](http://lh5.ggpht.com/_dSeRrhZ5pEA/TdrCOuNogTI/AAAAAAAAANE/uymeYkUJRkU/VARIABLE_VENTURI_CARB_DESIGN_thumb1.gif?imgmax=800)\n</center>\n\n\n- Orifice plate:\n\nWhen said plate is placed concentrically within a pipe, it causes the flow to contract suddenly as it approaches the hole and then suddenly expands to the total diameter of the pipe. The current flowing through the orifice forms a contracted vein and the rapid velocity of the flow results in a downward pressure decrease from the orifice.\nThe actual value of the discharge coefficient C depends on the location of the pressure ramifications, it is also affected by variations in the geometry of the edge of the hole. The value of C is much lower than that of the venturi tube or the flow nozzle since the fluid is forced to perform a sudden contraction followed by a sudden expansion.\nSome types of orifice plates are the following:\n\n\n<center>![](https://steemitimages.com/DQmatzdbEFBXMtuGvyLRC4npZ5HW74rKzNKwfGhq9Z3Q1jX/imagen.png)\n [Source](https://www.omega.co.uk/literature/transactions/volume4/Images/07_Fig_04_l.GIF)\n</center>\n\nThe concentric serves for liquids, the eccentric for the gases where the changes of pressure imply condensation, when the fluids contain a high percentage of dissolved gases.\n\nThe great advantage of the orifice plate in comparison with the other primary elements of measurement, is that due to the small amount of material and the relatively short time of machining required in its manufacture, its cost becomes comparatively low, apart that it is easily reproducible, easy to install and dismantle and that a high degree of accuracy is achieved with it. In addition, it does not retain many particles suspended in the fluid inside the hole.\n\nThe use of the orifice plate is inadequate in the measurement of fluids with solids in suspension because these particles can accumulate in the entrance of the plate. The behavior in its use with viscous fluids is erratic since the plate is calculated for a temperature and a given viscosity and produces the highest pressure losses compared to the other primary elements.\n\nThe biggest disadvantages of this meter are its limited capacity and the loss of load caused by both the waste fluid and the energy losses that occur when vortices are formed at the outlet of the hole.\n\n- Floz nozzle:\n\nIt is a gradual contraction of the flow stream followed by a straight and short cylindrical section. Due to the even and gradual contraction, there is a very small loss. At large values of Reynolds (106) C is greater than 0.99. The flow nozzle is a measuring instrument that allows differential pressure measurement when the ratio of ß is too high for the orifice plate, that is, when the flow velocity is much higher and the losses begin to become noticeable. Then, when installing a meter of this type much more accurate measurements are achieved. In addition this type of meter is useful for fluids with many particles in suspension or sediments, its hydrodynamic shape prevents sediments transported by the fluid to adhere to the nozzle.\n \n<center>![](https://steemitimages.com/DQmVoX3e7XCSvwbRFoLnkSmnhndPQNqKyJ7hnMbXejt3toA/imagen.png)\n [Source](http://www.flowmaxx.com/images/asme.h1.gif)\n</center>\n\nThe installation of this meter requires that the pipeline where the flow is to be measured, is in a straight line regardless of the orientation it has.\n\n- Pressure recovery: \n\nThe pressure drop is proportional to the loss of energy. The careful alignment of the Venturi tube and long gradual expansion after the throat causes a very small excess of turbulence in the flow stream. Therefore, the energy loss is low and the pressure recovery is high. The lack of a gradual expansion causes the nozzle to have a lower pressure recovery, while the one corresponding to the orifice is even lower. The best pressure recovery is obtained in the flow tube.\n\n--------------\n\nGreetings!\n\nFor more information visit the following links.\n\n+ https://www.comsol.com/blogs/exploring-the-venturi-effect/\n+ http://iamechatronics.com/notes/general-engineering/359-venturi-tubes-and-basic-principles\n+ http://sciphile.org/lessons/bernoullis-principle-and-venturi-tube\n\n</div>",
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      "body": "<div class=\"text-justify\">\n\nHi, Steemians! In today's post is focused on the study of the electromagnetic spectrum, which consists and what are the rays that form it. Of the four fundamental forces that we know so far (gravitational, electromagnetic (EM), strong nuclear and weak nuclear) our life in the world of macroscopic dimensions, from millimeters to kilometers, is governed by the first two. All forms of mechanical energy are actually manifestations of MS: the fact that I can \"touch\" and push the keyboard keys with which I am writing this text is because the electrons of the molecules that make up the key and the electrons of my fingers are repulsed by having the same electrical charge. The force of the wind in your face and in the blades of the wind turbines, the strength of the water in the dams, even the chemical energy released in the combustion is due to the EM interaction. The weak and strong force have effects only on the dimensions of the atomic nuclei.\n \n\n<center>![](https://steemitimages.com/DQmPmmWTsgmPW7XViCRgkSpyGNcEpjTZyfRggTuJx74EYiq/imagen.png)\n [Source](http://physics.phillipmartin.info/electromagnetic_spectrum.png)\n</center>\n\n\nTherefore, it is inevitable that in any discussion about the macroscopic world the EM spectrum will be treated sooner or later. Especially in astrophysics the knowledge of this spectrum is indispensable, since very many of the information we receive from the cosmos is through the EM radiation - from the light of the stars, of the galaxies, of the interstellar clouds, of the jets of black holes ... But: What is a spectrum? So let's see some basic principles below.\n\n\n## The electromagnetic spectrum: definition\n\nWe call the electromagnetic spectrum the set consisting of waves, from those that have greater length (for example, radio waves or waves that belong to sounds that can be perceived by the ear of the human being) to waves of shorter length (for example , gamma rays or cosmic rays).\n \n\n<center>![](https://steemitimages.com/DQmeqGYeSuKFcz6eCoaeJRM13fNLSTGrN5ZbxZWucpw2xnb/imagen.png)\n [Source](https://static.flocabulary.com/media/images/5c4345fcbd3c9fca94714487d53fa827/electro-image.jpg)\n</center>\n\n\nThe fundamental characteristics to study and describe the different types of waves are, apart from the wavelength; the energy and the frequency.\n\n*We must take into account the higher the wavelength, the lower the frequency, and the lower the wavelength, the higher the frequency.*\n\nFrom the previous observation, we can also give an analogous definition for the electromagnetic spectrum by referring to the frequency of the waves.\n \n<center>![](https://steemitimages.com/DQmRq1XHdPbxpokFTLSrrZBZe4CrSVrmPBcYeBRFiqckY18/imagen.png)\n [Source](http://www2.lbl.gov/images/MicroWorlds/EMSpec.gif)\n</center>\n\nWhen we refer to an object, we call the electromagnetic spectrum electromagnetic radiation that can absorb or emit said substance. Spectroscopes are used to observe the spectra, which also allow us to measure the wavelength, as well as the frequency and energy (or intensity of the radiation).\n\nThe waves that form the electromagnetic spectrum and that we can observe in the following image are (describing them from those with shorter wavelength to those of greater):\n\n- Gamma Rays: These are the waves that have the shortest wavelength, and therefore, the highest frequency. The’re the most penetrating waves known, also have high energy that allows them to travel very long distances through the air.\n\n- X-rays: These are located between Gamma rays and ultraviolet rays, therefore they have more energy than ultraviolet rays. They are used in a large number of industrial and scientific applications. Emphasizes, above all, its use in medicine where the use of radiography is very important. In spite of everything, they can be very dangerous, since they consist of a form of ionizing radiation that emit the electrons that are in the outside of the nucleus.\n\n- Ultraviolet rays (UV): These waves are in the frequency range between 7.5 × 10 ^ 14 Hz and 3.0 × 10 ^ 16 Hz. The best known types are UV-A rays (ultraviolet-A) and UV-B (ultraviolet-B). Many of the rays of the Sun that the Earth receives, and also some that provide certain rays lamps; They are of the UV-A type, so it is dangerous to expose yourself to them in excess since they can appear skin cancer. Although it is also true that if exposure to them is moderate, they favor the creation of vitamin D. But as we already know, the ozone layer helps us to protect ourselves from these rays by acting as a natural filter.\n\n- Light visible (or visible spectrum): It is the part of the electromagnetic spectrum that the human eye is able to detect. It covers all colors: from blue at 400 nm to red at 700 nm.\n\n- Infrared (IR) (or thermal) radiation: The infrared are in the frequency range between 3.0 × 10 ^ 11 Hz to 3.8 × 10 ^ 14Hz. The vast majority of infrared rays we receive are from the Sun, although any molecule that has a temperature above 0 ° Kelvin emits infrared rays. Infrared rays are very useful for meteorology, since from a photo of the Earth from a satellite using infrared rays, you can know the temperature in each area of the Earth, depending on the different colors that appear.\n\n- Radio waves: Lastly, radio waves are those with the longest wavelength. They are used mainly for television, mobile phones and radio.\n\nThe spectra can be seen through spectroscopes that, in addition to allowing the spectrum to be observed, allow measurements to be made on it, such as the wavelength, frequency and intensity of the radiation. The length of a wave is the spatial period of a wave, that is, the distance from pulse to pulse. Frequency is a quantity that measures the number of repetitions per unit of time of any phenomenon or periodic event.\n\nThe electromagnetic spectrum extends from the radiation of shorter wavelengths, such as gamma rays and X-rays, passing through ultraviolet light, visible light and infrared rays, to electromagnetic waves of longer wavelength, such as radio waves. It is believed that the limit for the smallest possible wavelength is the Planck length while the maximum limit would be the size of the Universe although formally the electromagnetic spectrum is infinite and continuous.\n\nFor its study, the electromagnetic spectrum is divided into segments or bands, although this division is inaccurate.\n\n<center>![](https://steemitimages.com/DQmPJqfkC2jtpfQnwSZWJ71kgEySKPDxuzD4Q7QXgcTBocx/imagen.png)\n [Source](http://images.tutorcircle.com/cms/images/124/electromagnetic-spectrum.PNG)\n</center>\n\nMuch information can be obtained about the physical properties of an object through the study of its electromagnetic spectrum, either by the light emitted (black body radiation) or absorbed by it. This is spectroscopy and is widely used in astrophysics and chemistry. To do this, the emission and absorption spectra are analyzed.\n\n<center>![](https://steemitimages.com/DQmSiEG6fn5TcMBroVdb7hK6Lo8wiPsqKwwKJkvTMTf4nc5/imagen.png)\n [Source](http://casswww.ucsd.edu/archive/public/tutorial/images/physics/em_abs.gif)\n</center>\n\n\n- The atomic emission spectrum of an element is a set of frequencies of electromagnetic \nwaves emitted by atoms of that element, in a gaseous state, when energy is communicated to it. The emission spectrum of each element is unique and can be used to determine if that element is part of an unknown compound.\n\n- The absorption spectrum of a material shows the fraction of the incident electromagnetic radiation that a material absorbs within a range of frequencies. It is, in a sense, the opposite of an emission spectrum. Each chemical element has absorption lines at some wavelengths, a fact that is associated with the energy differences of its different atomic orbitals. In fact, the absorption spectrum is used to identify the component elements of some samples, such as liquids and gases; further, it can be used to determine the structure of organic compounds. An example of the implications of an absorption spectrum is that the object that does so with the colors blue, green and yellow will appear red when white light strikes it.\n\n<center>![](https://steemitimages.com/DQmUULKSckQYhLHbchsopiW7sZnhstY8WHkbHjKBf1K56TW/imagen.png)\n [Source](https://alienspacesciencenews.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/continuous-absorption-line-and-emission-line-spectra-argon-gas-frequency-communication-signal-line-22-wow-data.jpg)\n</center>\n\nIn the image of the previous one we can see an example of application of the study of the spectra. When the light falls on a cloud of gas, its subsequent study reveals the components of which it is formed, since only those wavelengths that have not been absorbed by the cloud will pass. Each element has its own spectral signature.\n\n\n**The speed of light**\nThe speed of electromagnetic disturbances in the vacuum is a universal constant. It is called speed of light and is indicated by C. The speed of light in vacuum is a universal constant rounded to 300,000,000 m / s (300 million meters per second), but the exact figure is 299,792,458 m / s. In other media it varies according to electromagnetic factors: for example, the light in the air moves to 299,708,000 m / s, while in the water it moves more slowly, to 224,902,000 m / s. For two thousand years it was believed that light traveled with infinite speed. Many, like Galileo, tried to measure it without success.\n\n**Ultraviolet radiation**\nUltraviolet radiation is called electromagnetic energy emitted at wavelengths less than that corresponding to that visible by the human eye, but greater than that which characterizes X-rays, that is, between 100 and 360 nm. The radiation of wavelength between 100 and 200 nm is known as far ultraviolet or vacuum. Commonly comes from the sun or gas discharge lamps. Ultraviolet radiation is so energetic that its absorption by atoms and molecules produces joint ruptures and ion formation (photochemical reactions), in addition to electronic excitation. Prolonged exposure of human skin to ultraviolet rays predisposes to the development of skin cancer.\n\nOxygen and nitrogen in the atmosphere absorb virtually all of the far ultraviolet radiation from the sun, transforming its enormous energy into photochemical reactions and thus preventing it from reaching the earth's surface, where it would destroy complex molecules, and so it would make the existence of life so impossible.\n\n---------------------------\n\nThank you for readme...\nGreetings!\n\nFor more information visit the following links:\n\n+ https://www.britannica.com/science/electromagnetic-spectrum\n+ http://www.darvill.clara.net/emag/emagradio.htm\n+ http://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/light/Lesson-2/The-Electromagnetic-and-Visible-Spectra\n+ http://theory.uwinnipeg.ca/mod_tech/node152.html\n\n\n</div>",
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