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      "body": "English has achieved prime status by becoming the most widely spoken language in the world – if one disregards proficiency – ahead of Mandarin Chinese and Spanish. English is spoken in 101 countries, while Arabic is spoken in 60, French in 51, Chinese in 33, and Spanish in 31. From one small island, English has gone on to acquire lingua franca status in international business, worldwide diplomacy, and science.\n\nBut the success of English – or indeed any language – as a “universal” language comes with a hefty price, in terms of vulnerability. Problems arise when English is a second language to either speakers, listeners, or both. No matter how proficient they are, their own understanding of English, and their first (or “native”) language can change what they believe is being said.\n\nWhen someone uses their second language, they seem to operate slightly differently than when they function in their native language. 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      "body": "Hi! I am a robot. I just upvoted you! I found similar content that readers might be interested in:\nhttps://blog.nationalgeographic.org/2014/12/30/meet-the-dolphin-society/",
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      "title": "Meet the Dolphin Society In Changing PlanetTags Ocean ViewsDecember 30, 20146 Comments  Maddalena Bearz",
      "body": "A Glance Into the Lives of our Ocean Friends\nAll around me I see dolphins. I feel as though I could be part of a family, somehow different from my terrestrial one. At the bow of my boat, there’s a group of exuberant bottlenose teenagers playing amongst themselves. Some bear strings of kelp on the end of their snouts while others frolic with small pieces of plastic or jellyfish. We are all following one of those “freeways” called fronts, which form when water masses of different temperature meet in the ocean.\n\nMost dolphins are social animals and, like great apes and humans, derive more advantages than disadvantages from living in a group. In schools, a dolphin can attain protection from predators, ease of finding food and a convenient place to meet fertile sexual partners.\n\nBottlenose dolphins are the most well-known and studied cetaceans. They spend their lives in what are known as fission-fusion societies. “Fission” means that the members of the local breeding population are continually splitting up and going their separate ways. And “fusion” means they always come back. A fission-fusion society may consist of several to many schools, the composition of which may be constantly changing on a daily or even hourly basis. The complexity of these societies, coupled with the difficulties of studying animals at sea, present quite a challenge for scientists bent on understanding these cosmopolitan animals.\n\nWHO IS WITH WHOM? WHO IS NOT WITH WHOM?\nWho is with whom? Who is not with whom? These are important questions for dolphin researchers. Figuring out who, but also why, when, and how long different individuals stay together is very demanding due to the wide array of social strategies found in these animal populations.\n\nTo illustrate how confusing this can be it’s enough to look at three populations of bottlenose dolphins, one swimming in Shark Bay, Australia, another in Sarasota Bay, Florida, and the third in waters of Moray Firth, Scotland. In Sarasota and Shark Bay, females in a school may be either relatively social or completely solitary, avoiding the presence of other individuals in their group. Males may travel alone or form strong relationships with other males, bonding in alliances comparable to those of their primate cousins. However, when we travel half the world away to Scotland, the females behave similarly but the males act quite differently by not forming any alliances at all; so any hope of finding a single, general set of rules to evaluate social relationships in dolphin populations goes out the window.\n\nHerding Fish\nThe unpredictable composition of a dolphin school becomes even messier when we look into the high variability in foraging strategies used by bottlenose dolphins at different locations. In some populations, they feed using a complex group strategy that involves ingeniously circling and herding fish schools while a few individuals at a time dive to catch prey and several other animals stand guard nearby, occasionally switching jobs such that all members of the group may feed.\n\nIn the Bahamas, things are different. Dolphins work alone by diving nose first into the sandy sea bottom to seek a yet unidentified solitary prey, leaving the seafloor riddled by face prints that resemble small “volcanoes”. In Shark Bay, dolphins chase fish schools by swimming belly up near the surface. Prey are then either taken underwater or tossed into the air and snatched.\n\n \n\nAcrobatic bottlenose dolphin in the waters of Santa Monica Bay, California. Photograph courtesy of Maddalena Bearzi.\nACROBATIC BOTTLENOSE DOLPHIN IN THE WATERS OF SANTA MONICA BAY, CALIFORNIA. PHOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF MADDALENA BEARZI.\n \n\nIn yet another technique prevalent on the coastlines of Georgia and South Carolina, bottlenose dolphins search out a fish school and once located, cooperatively herd it to the muddy shoreline of tidal creeks forcing the prey to jump out of the water onto the beach. When the fish are helplessly stranded, the dolphins charge the muddy beach, sometimes throwing their entire bodies out of the water to grab a fish at which time they leap back to the safety of the water.\n\nThis diverse repertoire of foraging behaviors emphasizes the ability of these animals to capitalize on their own aptitudes and adopt either solitary or group strategies for hunting, depending on a variety of factors including the availability and type of food sources and the surrounding environment. If we think for a moment about accomplishing any of these tasks and the diverse levels of communication, organization, innovation and learning capacity that these strategies require, we begin to gain an appreciation for the level of intelligence inherent in a dolphin society.\n\nInterspecific differences in foraging techniques are plentiful in cetacean field research observations. At one end of the spectrum there are some species of river dolphins like the near completely blind susu, a species on the brink of extinction living in South Asia, somewhat reminiscent of a pink aquatic anteaters. The susu generally behaves as a solitary hunter, side-swimming along the bottom, endlessly nodding its head to scan for fish and obstacles with its sophisticated biosonar — a system used by dolphins to see and detect objects with sound. At the other end, we find huge schools of common dolphins – sometimes containing thousands of individuals – that can fan out to cover a vast amount of water in their search for patchily distributed fish schools in the open ocean. These cooperative groups may, later on, separate into smaller social units that disperse in different directions.\n\nKiller Whales\nSomewhere in the middle of the spectrum are killer whales, cosmopolitan marine mammals living from the polar latitudes to the equatorial regions and among the most distinctive members of the dolphin family. They too, live in highly coordinated and complex societies based on communication and group cooperation. Studies in the northeastern Pacific show astonishing differences in dietary specializations between sympatric populations of killer whales.\n\n \n\nA killer whale male traveling. Photograph courtesy of Maddalena Bearzi.\nA KILLER WHALE MALE TRAVELING. PHOTOGRAPH COURTESY OF MADDALENA BEARZI.\n \n\nTwo of these populations, referred to as resident and transient, live in the same coastal waters but are socially isolated from each other. They differ in morphology, genetic structure, distribution and behavioral patterns. Resident groups feed on fish only while transients feed mainly on marine mammals. Residents also live in long-term, large and stable pods formed by several maternal lineages whereas in transient populations all of the offspring – except for one male – disperse from their maternal pod. The offspring of transient whales, however, continue to live in their natal range displaying what is called locational philopatry. Transient whale pods of up to four individuals are much smaller than residents whose numbers can reach two hundred in a pod.\n\nGroup Foraging Tactics\nNo record of diet specialization like the one found in the sympatric populations of killer whales has ever been observed elsewhere in the mammal world. These dietary strategies seem to have been refined over a long period of time spanning multiple generations. In a clever and mutually exclusive way, resident and transient whales have developed their group foraging tactics to increase both rate of prey encounter and prey capture success. Depending on the type of prey, resident and transient whales have skillfully learned how to adopt different detection strategies, using echolocation when looking for fish or passive listening during a hunt for marine mammals.\n\nLiving in a school of common dolphins or killer whales clearly requires much contact and strong communication between individuals. In highly multimodal animals like dolphins, this can be attained through visual, tactile and acoustic means. As in human societies, this voluminous exchange of information, transferred from one individual to another, forms the foundation for these coordinated social organizations.\n\nIn large or small schools, in fission-fusion societies or not, in coordinated foraging groups or as solitary hunters, dolphins live in all oceans of the world. Diverse as their respective environments, they can be as different from each other as are the frozen seas of the arctic from the clear warm waters of the tropics. Different species may resemble each other physically or their diversity may be obvious, as illustrated by the tremendous size difference between sperm whales, the largest of the dolphins at over eighteen meters in length, and the diminutive vaquita, an endangered species indigenous to Mexico’s Sea of Cortez, measuring in at just under a meter.\n\nIn their everyday life, all of these dolphin species must use context-dependent complex social signals and draw from an extensive variety of strategies to resolve any given task, including not only foraging but also engaging in courtships, maintaining relationships and hierarchies, or warning other individuals of peril.\n\nLIKE FOOD, SEX PLAYS AN ALL-IMPORTANT ROLE IN DOLPHIN SOCIETIES.\nLike food, sex plays an all-important role in dolphin societies. Sex is not only essential for reproduction, but also in a “social” context. Sexual “non-reproductive” behavior in marine mammal species like bottlenose dolphins and spinner dolphins is important in mediating social relationships or when individuals attempt to communicate. So-called “goosing” or rostro-genital contact is widespread in dolphin societies. This genital check up where an individual rubs its beak into the genital area of another of the same or different sex may tell a dolphin the reproductive state of the inspected animal. In the underwater world, it is neither unusual nor outrageous to find infant males trying to mount their mothers, young males sexually harassing older males, older males mounting calves, or an adult male mounting other males to express dominance.\n\nBottlenose dolphin males reach their sexual maturity at about ten, twelve years of age; females about five to ten. As in many dolphin species, bottlenose males and females do not display sexual dimorphism, meaning that they look pretty much the same to a human observer.\n\nAfter a pregnancy of twelve months or so, a single calf is born. The dolphin females invest a great deal in their offspring, as in humans, great apes and other mammals. The birth of a dolphin calf marks the beginning of the strongest bond found within a school, that of a mother and her calf. Their two existences will be united for several years to come. At its mother’s side, under her guidance and devotion, the calf will gradually be taught how to survive in the challenging ocean world. Understanding parental “love” in species others than ours is not easy, mostly because this kind of emotion is thought to be for humans only. But those of us who have observed the meticulous care of a mother for a calf, who have heard the pleading and calling of a dolphin mother suddenly separated from her offspring or have witnessed a mother lingering for hours near a lifeless calf, can’t help thinking that this feeling of “love” may not belong to solely to us.![Bottlenose-dolphins.png](https://steemitimages.com/DQmZybPwuCTjd3T8rYa3UmHHDFpAgAZwrPCGa3ypnhh3uh1/Bottlenose-dolphins.png)",
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      "author": "cheetah",
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      "body": "Hi! I am a robot. I just upvoted you! I found similar content that readers might be interested in:\nhttps://www.universetoday.com/138595/badly-will-humanity-freak-discover-alien-life/",
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      "title": "HOW BADLY WILL HUMANITY FREAK OUT IF WE DISCOVER ALIEN LIFE?  Article written: 21 Feb , 2018 by Evan Gough",
      "body": "The discovery of alien life is one of those things that everyone thinks about at some point. Hollywood has made their version of first contact very clear: huge alien vessels appear over Earth’s cities, panic ensues, and Will Smith saves the day with a Windows 3.1 virus. It’s lots of fun—and who knows?—it may end up being accurate. (Not the Windows 3.1 part.) But sci-fi books and movies aside, what do we really know about our attitude to the discovery of alien life?\n\nWe have an organization (SETI) dedicated to detecting the presence of alien civilizations, and we have a prominent scientist (Stephen Hawking) warning against advertising our own presence. Those represent the extremes—actively seeking out alien life vs. hiding from it—but what is the collective attitude towards the discovery of alien life? Scientists at Arizona State University (ASU) have studied that issue and detailed their results in a new study published in the journal Frontiers of Psychology.\n\nThe team of scientists tried to gauge people’s reactions to the discovery of alien life in three separate parts of their study. In the first case, they examined media reports of past announcements about the discovery of alien life, for example the announcement in 1996 that evidence of microbial life had been found in a Martian metorite.\n\nSecondly, they asked a sample of over 500 people what their own reactions, and the reactions of the rest of humanity, would be to the hypothetical announcement of alien life.\n\nThirdly, the 500 people were split into two groups. Half were asked to read and respond to a real newspaper story announcing the discovery of fossilized Martian microbial life. The other half were asked to read and respond to a newspaper article announcing the creation of synthetic life by Craig Venter.\n\n\nMartian meteorite ALH84001 was found in Antarctica in 1984 by a group of meteorite hunters from the US. Scientists who studied it suggested that it contained evidence of ancient Martian microbial life. Image: By Jstuby at English Wikipedia, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=47556214\n\nIn all three cases the life was microbial in nature. Microbial life is the simplest life form, so it should be what we expect to find. This is certainly true in our own Solar System, since the existence of any other intelligent life has been ruled out here, while microbial life has not.\n\nAlso, in all three cases, the language of the respondents and the language in the media reports was analyzed for positive and negative words. A specialized piece of software called Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count (LIWC) was used. It’s text-analysis software that scans written language and identifies instances of words that reflect positive affect, negative affect, reward, or risk. (You can try LIWC here for fun, if you like.)\n\n\nElectron microscope images of the Martian meteorite ALH84001 showed chain-like structures that resembled living structures. Image: NASA\n\nAnalyzing Media Reports\nThe media reports used in the study were all from what the team considers reputable journalism outlets like The New York Times and Science Magazine. The reports were about things like unidentified signals from space that could have been alien in nature, fossilized microbial remains in meteorites, and the discovery of exoplanets in the habitable zones of other solar systems. There were 15 articles in total.\n\n\nThe authors of the study wanted to find out how people would react to the discovery of alien life, and to the discovery of potentially habitable exoplanets which might harbor life. In this artist’s illustration, exoplanets orbit a young, red dwarf star. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltec\n\nOverall, the study showed that language in media reports about alien life was more positive than negative, and emphasized reward rather than risk. So people generally find the potential of alien life to be a positive thing and something to be looked forward to. However, this part of the study showed something else: People were more positively disposed towards news of alien life that was microbial than they were towards alien life that could be present on exoplanets, where, presumably, it might be more than merely microbial. So, microbes we can handle, but something more advanced and a little doubt starts to creep in.\n\nReactions to Hypothetical Announcements of Alien Life\nThis part of the study aimed to assess people’s beliefs regarding how both they as individuals—and humanity as a whole—might react to the discovery of alien microbial life. The same LIWC software was used to analyze the written responses of the 500 people in the sample group.\n\nThe results were similar to the first part of the study, at least for the individuals themselves. Positive affect was more predominant than negative aspect, and words reflecting reward were more predominant than words reflecting risk. This probably isn’t surprising, but the study did show something more interesting.\n\nWhen participants were asked about how the rest of humanity would respond to the announcement of alien life, the response was different. While positive language still outweighed negative language, and reward still outweighed risk, the differences weren’t as pronounced as they were for individuals. So people seem to think that others won’t be looking forward to the discovery of alien life as much as they themselves do.\n\nActual Reactions to the Discovery of Extraterrestrial Life\nThis is hard to measure since we haven’t actually discovered any yet. But there have been times when we thought we might have.\n\nIn this part of the study, the group of 500 respondents was split into two groups of 250. The first was asked to read an actual 1996 New York Times article announcing the discovery of fossilized microbes in the Martian meteorite. The second group was asked to read a New York Times article from 2010 announcing the creation of life by Craig Venter. The goal was to find out if the positive bias towards the discovery of microbial life was specific to microbial life, or to scientific advancements overall.\n\n\nSaturn’s moon Enceladus could harbor microbial life in the warm salty water thought to exist under its frozen surface. Respondents in the study seemed to like that possibility. Credits: NASA/JPL-Caltech/Space Science Institute\n\nThis part of the study found the same emphasis on positive affect over negative affect, and reward over risk. This held true in both cases: the Martian microbial life article, and the artificially created life article. The type of article played a minor role in people’s responses. Results were slightly more positive towards the Martian life story than the artificial life story.\n\nOverall, this study shows that people seem positively disposed towards the discovery of alien life. This is reflected in media coverage, people’s personal responses, and people’s expectations of how others would react.\n\nThis is really just the tip of the iceberg, though. As the authors say in their study, this is the first empirical attempt to understand any of this. And the study was only 500 people, all Americans.\n\nHow different the results might be in other countries and cultures is still an open question. Would populations whose attitudes are more strongly shaped by religion respond differently? Would the populations of countries that have been invaded and dominated by other countries be more nervous about alien life or habitable exoplanets? There’s only conjecture at this point.\n\nMaybe we’re novelty-seekers and we thrive on new discoveries. Or maybe we’re truth-seekers, and that’s reflected in the study. Maybe some of the positivity reflects our fear of being alone. If Earth is the only life-supporting world, that’s a very lonely proposition. Not only that, but it’s an awesome responsibility: we better not screw it up!\n\nStill, the results are encouraging for humanity. We seem, at least according to this first study, open to the discovery of alien life.\n\nBut that might change when the first alien ship casts its shadow over Los Angeles.\n\nThe post How Badly Will Humanity Freak Out if We Discover Alien Life? appeared first on Universe Today.![1620ATA2010_201120ENH20630x412_1.jpg](https://steemitimages.com/DQmTzMHoebmRfGKcEakfAgzQi8LjTzCSUW7nUfctsBYQR3v/1620ATA2010_201120ENH20630x412_1.jpg)",
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