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      "author": "modrzew",
      "body": "> EMCAScript 6 is full of great features.\n\nWhat used to be ES6 was renamed to ES2015 over 2 years ago (to be able to properly version it), so you may want to use appropriate name.\n\nOtherwise quite nice read! 👍",
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      "body": "![](https://i.imgur.com/cCEbXvW.png)\n\nIn the past, we would see a lot of this:\n\n```javascript\nsomeFunction(param, function() {\n  // do something\n});\n```\nNow, this gets a little bit cumbersome after a while. Not only are function expressions long, they include a kitchen sink of features that you probably won't need in all cases, like the `this` or a `new` constructor.\n\nThankfully, in EMCAScript 6, we got this whole new and improved arrow function. Let's take a look.\n\n## Syntax\n\nThe declaration of an arrow function goes like this:\n\n```\n(param1, param2 ... paramN) => expression\n```\n\nArrow functions may remind you of the lambda or anonymous function syntax used various other programming languages like Haskell:\n\n```javascript\nsomeFunction(param, () => {\n  // do something\n});\n```\n\nAs you can see, they're defined with the parameters wrapped in brackets, followed by an `=>` arrow and an expression. If your arrow function doesn't need any parameters, you can just use two empty brackets as I did above. Here's another example:\n\n```javascript\nvar array = [1, 2, 3, 4];\nvar increment = 2;\n\nvar incremented = array.map(item => item + increment); // [3, 4, 5, 6]\n```\n\nWhen writing arrow functions like this (without using `{}` curly braces), you don't even need to use the `return` keyword, similar to how you would return a value in a language like Rust. It's implied that, since there's only one expression that needs to be evaluated, it should be returned.\n\nIn that example, we didn't use brackets around the argument `param`. When you only have one parameter, brackets are optional.\n\n## Advantages\n\nOne of the things that makes arrow functions so useful is that they don't have their own `this` object. Consider the following:\n\n```javascript\nvar object = {\n  values: [2, 4, 6, 8],\n  multiplyBy: 7,\n  multiply() { // ES6 also let's us write functions in objects like this\n    return this.values.map(function (value) {\n      return value * this.multiplyBy;\n    })\n  }\n}\n```\n\nHowever, if we try to run this, we'll get an `Array [ NaN, NaN, NaN, NaN ]` value. Why, you ask? Try taking a closer look at that anonymous function.\n\nAs I explained in [my article on closures](https://steemit.com/programming/@njms/closures-in-programming-what-are-they-and-how-do-they-work), Every nested function takes on the *lexical scope* of the function it's nested in. In other words, all values made available in the outer function exist in the inner function. For this reason, we might expect that the `this` object should be available as well. However, the anonymous function you're working in already has it's own `this` which takes superiority.\n\nThough we might have access to `multiplyBy` in the outer function, getting to it within the inner function is a bit more difficult. Before ES6, people often used this hack:\n\n```javascript\nvar self = this;\n\nreturn this.values.map(function (value) {\n  return value * self.multiplyBy;\n})\n```\n\nSure, this works, but it's a bit of a compromise. Thankfully, arrow functions solve this issue beautifully.\n\n```javascript\nvar object = {\n  values: [2, 4, 6, 8],\n  multiplyBy: 7,\n  multiply() {\n    return this.values.map(value => value * this.multiplyBy);\n  }\n}\n```\n\nSince arrow functions don't have `this`, no referencing is required to access the `multiplyBy` value.\n\nPerfect.\n\n## Another (practical) use case\n\nLet's take a look at this function I wrote to simplify the process of querying an API with an AJAX call using jQuery:\n\n```javascript\nfunction queryAPI(query, datatype, callback) {\n  return $.ajax({\n    url: query,\n    dataType: datatype,\n    success: callback.success,\n    error: callback.error\n  });\n}\n```\n\nThe function takes three parameters: the complete URL, the data type and a success and error callback wrapped in an object. We can call this function like so:\n\n```javascript\nqueryAPI(\"https://api.example.com/some/query\", \"json\", {\n  success: function(data) {\n    element.innerHTML = data;\n  },\n  error: function(error) {\n    element.innerHTML = error;\n  }\n})\n```\n\nNow that we know more about arrow functions, things would look a lot nicer written like this:\n\n```javascript\nqueryAPI(\"https://api.example.com/some/query\", \"json\", {\n  success: data => element.innerHTML = data,\n  error: error => element.innerHTML = error\n})\n```\n\nEMCAScript 6 is full of great features. Sure, many of them might not be supported natively in all browsers yet, but that doesn't mean it's too early to start!\n\n## Further reading\n * [Arrow functions - JavaScript | MDN](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Functions/Arrow_functions)\n * [ES6 In Depth: Arrow functions](https://hacks.mozilla.org/2015/06/es6-in-depth-arrow-functions/)\n * [Arrow function vs function declaration / expressions: Are they equivalent / exchangeable? - Stack Overflow](https://stackoverflow.com/questions/34361379/arrow-function-vs-function-declaration-expressions-are-they-equivalent-exch)\n\n *Agree or disagree? Think I missed or poorly explained something important? Questions, comments or concerns? Leave a comment down below!*",
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      "body": "![](https://steemitimages.com/DQmNweVRbuaSHsLBBQVkj4WSAMeB5f2bmku3aBhoyHkdeL8/image.png)\n\nAny avid programmer would likely have heard the term “closure” a handful of times, though many newcomers may struggle trying to understand how they work, or even what they are. Let's take a look at a definition [taken from Wikipedia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Closure_(computer_programming)):\n\n> In programming languages, closures (also lexical closures or function closures) are techniques for implementing lexically scoped name binding in languages with first-class functions.\n\nThat’s, well, not very intuitive. To be fair, closures aren’t an incredibly intuitive thing when you define them like that. I’m certain, however, that though breaking this definition down things will become much clearer. Let’s take a look:\n\n## Lexical scoping\n\nThis can actually be broken down even further. First of all, “scoping”. Most programmers should be familiar with scoping. A block of code, usually wrapped in curly braces, is “scoped” in some sense.\n\n```\n# pseudocode\n\nvariable num = 1            # x is in the global scope\n\nfunction add_one(x) {\n  variable sum = x + num    # sum is local to the \"add_one\" function\n  return sum\n}\n\nprint(num)                  # Prints the number 1\nprint(sum)                  # Prints a reference error\n```\n\nIn that pseudocode example, we declare two variables: `num` and `sum`. The variable `num` is in the global scope, meaning that it can be retrieved anywhere, including from within the function `add_one`. The `sum` variable, however, is *not* global and can only be accessed from within the function.\n\nIn this case, of course, the `sum` is being returned from the function so if we were to later assign the value returned by the function to a new variable binding we technically could access its contents.\n\n```\n# pseudocode\n\nprint(sum)            // ReferenceError: sum is not define\nprint(add_one(3));    // 4\n```\n\nThat's enough about scoping. How about a *lexical* scoping? On its own, the word lexicon really has no significance to computer science. A lexicon is like a dictionary or a list of vocabulary. That's where you start to see the analogy.\n\nNow, the idea behind lexical scoping is that every inner scope has access to the values that exist in the outer scope. For an example,\n\n```\n# pseudocode\n\nfunction outer() {\n  # Outer block of code\n  variable a = \"Hello, World!\"\n\n  function inner() {\n    # Inner block of code\n    variable b = a\n  }\n}\n```\n\nHere, we have one function wrapped in another. In the outer block, we define a variable called `a` and assign it the value \"Hello, World!\". Thanks to lexical scoping, the interpreter or compiler allows us to assign the value of the variable `a` to our new variable `b`.\n\nTo put it in the most simple form possible, **with lexical scoping, the inner function contains the scope of the outer function**. So, when you're nesting functions, the function on the inside has access to all the values defined on the outside.\n\nWhat must be the most common use case for nesting functions is returning them. We refer to functions that are treated like values as they are in functional languages as *first-class functions*.\n\n## First-class functions\n\nFunctional programmers will definitely know about the concept of first-class functions. To put it simply, a first-class function is one that is treated as a *first-class citizen*. If a language supports first-class functions, then they can be assigned to variables and passed to other functions.\n\nA function that accepts other functions as arguments is referred to as a high-order function. For a function to be considered high-order, it should meet at least one of these two requirements:\n\n * The function takes at least one other function as an argument.\n * The function returns another function defined from within the function.\n\nHere's an example:\n\n```\n#pseudocode\n\nfunction create_increaser(by) {\n  function increaser(inc) {\n    return inc + by\n  }\n\n  return increaser\n}\n\nvariable increment_by_one = create_increaser(1)\nvariable increment_by_two = create_increaser(2)\n\nincrement_by_one(5) // 6\nincrement_by_two(5) // 7\n```\n\nHere, a function called `create_increaser` takes one argument and returns another function. We can assign the returned function to a variable as demonstrated in the example. We can then pass a number to that function and have it incremented by however much we decided earlier.\n\nThis is a pretty simple example, but it gets the point across.\n\nSo now that we know what lexical scoping is and we understand first class functions, how does any of this relate to closures?\n\n## Finally, closures.\n\nLet's revisit our last example. This time, using Javascript:\n\n```javascript\n// javascript\n\nfunction create_increaser(by) {\n  function increaser(inc) {\n    return inc + by;\n  }\n\n  return increaser;\n}\n```\n\nBy our understanding of memory management, once the interpreter reaches the end of the scope, in theory, all of the variable bindings should be picked up by the garbage collector. Try looking a little bit closer. At the start of this function, we get a number bound to this binding called `by` representing by how much the \"increaser\" should increment each number.\n\nAs we understand scoping, this binding should be eliminated after the function has run. Yet lo and behold:\n\n```javascript\n// javascript\n\n// The binding 'by' comes into scope and then falls out\nvar increment_by_one = create_increaser(1);\n\n\n// We increment the number 2 by the value that shouldn't exist anymore\nconsole.log(increment_by_one(2));\n```\n\nWe can still use it. How do we still have access to this value if it shouldn't exist?\n\nThis is because in Javascript, all function are closures: a sort of function that \"captures\" it's lexical scope. If you're using a language that supports closures, you have the power to hang on to scopes after the block has finished executing. In other words, using this pattern, we can still access values created in functions even after they've been run.\n\n## A practical use case\n\nAlright, so that's all great, but are there any practical use cases for this concept?\n\nHere's an example I find particularly useful in Python\n\n```python\n# python\n\nimport os\n\ndir1 = \"Document\"\nsub_dir = \"work\"\nproject_folder_one = \"project1\"\nproject_folder_two = \"project2\"\n\nwith open(os.path.join(dir1, sub_dir, project_folder_one, \"file.txt\"), \"w\") as f:\n  f.write(\"Hello, World!\")\n\nwith open(os.path.join(dir1, sub_dir, project_folder_two, \"file.txt\"), \"w\") as f:\n    f.write(\"Hello, World!\")\n```\n\nSo here, I have the path `Documents/work` broken down into variables before using it multiple times with `os.path.join`, a function used to join path components in an OS-independent way.\n\nWhen my project starts getting more complex and I need to use that path more often, things get out of hand. Of course, thanks to closures, I can do something like this:\n\n```python\n# python\n\ndef relative(origin):\n    def joined (*to):\n        path = origin\n        for t in to:\n            path = os.path.join(path, t)\n        return path\n\n    return joined\n\nfrom_work = relative(os.path.join(\"Documents\", \"work\"))\n\nwith open(from_work(\"project1\", \"file.txt\"), \"w\") as f:\n  f.write(\"Hello, World!\")\n\nwith open(from_work(\"project1\", \"build\", \"file.txt\"), \"w\") as f:\n    f.write(\"Hello, World!\")\n```\n\nSee? Much more efficient. Maybe this specific use case isn't extremely useful to everyone but I think it demonstrates how much of an impact closures can have on one's project.\n\n## Further reading\n\n * [Closures - JavaScript | MDN](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Closures)\n * [functional programming - What is a 'Closure'? - Stack Overflow](https://stackoverflow.com/questions/36636/what-is-a-closure)\n * [Lexical scoping on Wikipedia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scope_(computer_science)#Lexical_scoping)\n\n*Agree or disagree? Think I missed or poorly explained something important? Questions, comments or concerns? Leave a comment down below!*",
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