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      "body": "Hello @martins87! This is a friendly reminder that you have 3000 Partiko Points unclaimed in your Partiko account!\n\nPartiko is a fast and beautiful mobile app for Steem, and it’s the most popular Steem mobile app out there! Download Partiko using the link below and login using SteemConnect to claim your 3000 Partiko points! You can easily convert them into Steem token!\n\nhttps://partiko.app/referral/partiko\n\n![](https://d1vof77qrk4l5q.cloudfront.net/statics/partiko-poster-best-steem-app-for-your-phone.jpg)",
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      "body": "@@ -1,16 +1,33 @@\n-!%5Bunicorn.pn\n+%3Ccenter%3E!%5Bquestion-marks-2.jp\n g%5D(h\n@@ -62,66 +62,83 @@\n /DQm\n-UreoJjhaS7F3ejUreyn9rqRGmgp91WcCrAXyBkUiAo1v/unicorn.png)%0A\n+SmC68FsmqX52WeFRKcTfYuDKZJqFNkBpRwTkVhe8crb9/question-marks-2.jpg)%3C/center%3E\n %0ATak\n",
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      "parent_author": "",
      "parent_permlink": "blockchain",
      "permlink": "ethereum-glossary",
      "title": "Ethereum Glossary"
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{
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      "author": "martins87",
      "body": "![encryption2.jpg](https://cdn.steemitimages.com/DQmU5a7HYffDLYz6rvU71nwYda9CBsvd6KXNftRuTS1EQ6p/encryption2.jpg)\n\nCryptography comes from the ancient greek meaning: \"crypto\" = secret, \"graphy\" = writing.\n\nLet's say that Messi wants to send Pelé a message, but he doesn't want anyone else to see the content of the message. Messi must send the message to Pelé via a non secure way, like the Internet or via Radio. However, he is not sure that the message won't be seen by any other person. What if there is a middleman trying to read the secret message?\nThe solution for Messi is simple: use cryptography!\nIf he encrypts the message he won't have to worry if someone will get it. Pelé then needs to decrypt the message to read it.\n\n### Some terminology\n\nCryptography: method to send secret messages using a code\nCrytanalysis: trying to break the code and read those messages\nPlaintext: message in its original form. very easy to understand its contents\nCiphertext: message in coded form\nKey: mathematical operations we can perform on a value\nEncryption: transforming PT to CT\nDecryption: transforming CT to PT\nCipher: the method used for encryption\nSteganography: the practice of hiding information\n\n### How do we know if a cryptographic technique is \"secure\"?\n\nWe let lots of smart people try to break it (cryptanalysis).\nIf they can't, we assume it is secure.\n\n### Frequency analysis\n\nCryptanalysis technique described in the 9th century by Al-Kindi in Iraq.\nNot all letters in a language occur with the same frequency.\nSome languages have certain characteristics. For example, here are some patterns of the English language:\n- E is most common letter\n- vowels are about 40%\n- vowels tend to be separated by consonants\n- Q tends to be followed by U\n- etc.\n\n### Caesar algorithm\n\nSubstitute letters by N letters away (e.g. N = 3. A is D, B is E, C is F...)\nHow do we break it? try all possible values for N.\nExample:\n\n<center>![c1.png](https://cdn.steemitimages.com/DQmah4JmoZfLk8H21kduUBhRFjeca16zocBmsu5kdeGWpRr/c1.png)</center>\nIf we try here all the 26 letters we will easily get to the key 3.\n\n### Vigenére\n\nIt's a poly-alphabetic cipher where one plaintext letter can become different ciphertext letters. It uses a text based key and a modulo arithmetic to perform the encryption. Using frequency analysis is possible, but much more difficult.\nExample:\n\n<center>![c2.png](https://cdn.steemitimages.com/DQmSXbTZe73kWUTcDrVAVtH1Y8iYXXtpcYd1z52b8gZ1XrF/c2.png)</center>\n\nLet's chose a key: MONKEY\nWe now add the numbers of the letters and get the result letter:\n\n<center>![c3.png](https://cdn.steemitimages.com/DQmantPwpV2AerHzGvNw3m8oGGy7vbYtoySXwiZ5vt5eVHT/c3.png)</center>\n\n### One-time pad\n\nVigénere cipher with a randomly chosen key as long as the message. The key needs to be shared between parties beeforehand and can NEVER be re-used. Provable unbreakable without the key.\nThis is the only perfect cryptography.\nExample:\n\n<center>![c2.png](https://cdn.steemitimages.com/DQmSXbTZe73kWUTcDrVAVtH1Y8iYXXtpcYd1z52b8gZ1XrF/c2.png)</center>\n\n<center>![c3.png](https://cdn.steemitimages.com/DQmantPwpV2AerHzGvNw3m8oGGy7vbYtoySXwiZ5vt5eVHT/c3.png)</center>\n\nAll of the previous techniques have two basic components:\n1. algorithm (what you do to the message)\n2. key (the secret that you need in order to encrypt/decrypt properly)\n\nWhen using these algorithms, the key is the secret. The algorithm is public.\n\nMore details:\n[Cryptography (Wikipedia)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptography)\n\n<hr>\n\n<center>![i-love-bitcoin-transparent.png](https://steemitimages.com/100x100/https://cdn.steemitimages.com/DQmdaqntCwUa4GYHgDeXB4Lvvc73AuxEKWW13HWzVDA9Yew/i-love-bitcoin-transparent.png)\nCheck out my Blockchain website: [Operation Blockchain](https://www.operationblockchain.org/)</center>",
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      "author": "jrej",
      "body": "Great to see some crypto padawans around here! \n\nI'm more of an artist myself. But seeing the potential of crypto going forward I couldn't resist fullfilling this old time dream of mine. Learn code.\n\nAlways fascinated me but didn't think I was capable.\n\nI started learning web development in general in November (with freecodecamp). I'm starting javascript and plan on learning python after that. I hope to get skilled enough to lend a job in the field. My plan is to work on Steemit/crypto related project on the side. Post css art and animation on Steemit. So much to do. Very exciting times. \n\nThanks for sharing your journey! Hope we can motivate eachother and follow our progression as we go. See you around ;-)\n\nPs: Any Developer discord I can join?",
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      "body": "@@ -447,17 +447,17 @@\n tination\n-%0A\n+ \n address)\n@@ -535,17 +535,17 @@\n ally, it\n-%0A\n+ \n is the r\n@@ -697,17 +697,17 @@\n s up all\n-%0A\n+ \n remainin\n@@ -780,17 +780,17 @@\n omething\n-%0A\n+ \n very wro\n@@ -1044,17 +1044,17 @@\n opposite\n-%0A\n+ \n of littl\n@@ -1193,17 +1193,17 @@\n  Bitcoin\n-%0A\n+ \n communit\n@@ -1275,17 +1275,17 @@\n posal to\n-%0A\n+ \n improve \n@@ -1433,17 +1433,17 @@\n omprised\n-%0A\n+ \n transact\n@@ -1516,17 +1516,17 @@\n d to the\n-%0A\n+ \n Ethereum\n@@ -1646,17 +1646,17 @@\n  linking\n-%0A\n+ \n to its p\n@@ -1737,17 +1737,17 @@\n protocol\n-%0A\n+ \n in that \n@@ -1921,17 +1921,17 @@\n ter or a\n-%0A\n+ \n virtual \n@@ -2006,17 +2006,17 @@\n  numeric\n-%0A\n+ \n format.%0A\n@@ -2113,17 +2113,17 @@\n t stage.\n- \n+%0A\n It inclu\n@@ -2125,17 +2125,17 @@\n included\n-%0A\n+ \n EIP-649:\n@@ -2209,17 +2209,17 @@\n  the Ice\n-%0A\n+ \n Age (see\n@@ -2293,17 +2293,17 @@\n m 5 to 3\n-%0A\n+ \n ether.%0A%0A\n@@ -2399,17 +2399,17 @@\n ) into a\n-%0A\n+ \n lower le\n@@ -2540,17 +2540,17 @@\n locks in\n-%0A\n+ \n their lo\n@@ -2877,17 +2877,17 @@\n nclude a\n-%0A\n+ \n switch t\n@@ -2956,17 +2956,17 @@\n ng other\n-%0A\n+ \n changes.\n@@ -3068,17 +3068,17 @@\n ion from\n-%0A\n+ \n another \n@@ -3230,17 +3230,17 @@\n gister a\n-%0A\n+ \n contract\n@@ -3390,17 +3390,17 @@\n ns which\n-%0A\n+ \n operate \n@@ -3471,17 +3471,17 @@\n med %22The\n-%0A\n+ \n DAO%22 lau\n@@ -3555,17 +3555,17 @@\n timately\n-%0A\n+ \n motivate\n@@ -3712,17 +3712,17 @@\n into two\n-%0A\n+ \n competin\n@@ -3815,17 +3815,17 @@\n nd a web\n-%0A\n+ \n user-int\n@@ -3903,17 +3903,17 @@\n of open,\n-%0A\n+ \n decentra\n@@ -3988,17 +3988,17 @@\n  include\n-%0A\n+ \n decentra\n@@ -4140,17 +4140,17 @@\n ke ERC20\n-%0A\n+ \n tokens, \n@@ -4219,17 +4219,17 @@\n  are not\n-%0A\n+ \n recogniz\n@@ -4303,17 +4303,17 @@\n see also\n-%0A\n+ \n %22NFT%22).%0A\n@@ -4410,17 +4410,17 @@\n roduce a\n-%0A\n+ \n proof of\n@@ -4535,17 +4535,17 @@\n tring of\n-%0A\n+ \n data cal\n@@ -4621,17 +4621,17 @@\n with the\n-%0A\n+ \n correspo\n@@ -4699,25 +4699,25 @@\n that (1) the\n-%0A\n+ \n document was\n@@ -4927,17 +4927,17 @@\n thm used\n-%0A\n+ \n by Ether\n@@ -5080,17 +5080,17 @@\n Ethereum\n-%0A\n+ \n platform\n@@ -5156,17 +5156,17 @@\n Ethereum\n-%0A\n+ \n communit\n@@ -5229,18 +5229,18 @@\n ent.\n- \n+%0A\n For more\n-%0A\n+ \n info\n@@ -5399,14 +5399,14 @@\n ess.\n- \n+%0A\n When\n-%0A\n+ \n gene\n@@ -5489,17 +5489,17 @@\n a source\n-%0A\n+ \n of high \n@@ -5719,33 +5719,33 @@\n  of the Ethereum\n-%0A\n+ \n network.%0A%0A**ERC*\n@@ -5829,17 +5829,17 @@\n define a\n-%0A\n+ \n specific\n@@ -5922,17 +5922,17 @@\n eum 1.0.\n- \n+%0A\n For more\n@@ -5944,25 +5944,25 @@\n rmation, see\n-%0A\n+ \n https://gith\n@@ -6090,17 +6090,17 @@\n vers gas\n-%0A\n+ \n costs wh\n@@ -6168,17 +6168,17 @@\n rcase Xi\n-%0A\n+ \n characte\n@@ -6277,17 +6277,17 @@\n  and use\n-%0A\n+ \n them to \n@@ -6337,17 +6337,17 @@\n terface.\n- \n+%0A\n For more\n@@ -6363,17 +6363,17 @@\n ion, see\n-%0A\n+ \n http://s\n@@ -6522,17 +6522,17 @@\n code. In\n-%0A\n+ \n Ethereum\n@@ -6609,17 +6609,17 @@\n a series\n-%0A\n+ \n of bytec\n@@ -6693,17 +6693,17 @@\n pecified\n-%0A\n+ \n through \n@@ -7007,17 +7007,17 @@\n sed on a\n-%0A\n+ \n testnet.\n@@ -7175,17 +7175,17 @@\n on of an\n-%0A\n+ \n alternat\n@@ -7464,17 +7464,17 @@\n nds, and\n-%0A\n+ \n inspect \n@@ -7610,17 +7610,17 @@\n  Virtual\n-%0A\n+ \n Machine \n@@ -7691,17 +7691,17 @@\n nd limit\n-%0A\n+ \n the cons\n@@ -7923,17 +7923,17 @@\n r CTO of\n-%0A\n+ \n Ethereum\n@@ -8002,17 +8002,17 @@\n gramming\n-%0A\n+ \n language\n@@ -8140,17 +8140,17 @@\n  and its\n-%0A\n+ \n cryptocu\n@@ -8356,25 +8356,25 @@\n gence in the\n-%0A\n+ \n blockchain; \n@@ -8438,17 +8438,17 @@\n e blocks\n-%0A\n+ \n created \n@@ -8523,17 +8523,17 @@\n sed with\n-%0A\n+ \n fork, so\n@@ -8758,17 +8758,17 @@\n transfer\n-%0A\n+ \n protocol\n@@ -8879,17 +8879,17 @@\n  key and\n-%0A\n+ \n master c\n@@ -8962,17 +8962,17 @@\n mnemonic\n-%0A\n+ \n words, m\n@@ -9128,17 +9128,17 @@\n at block\n-%0A\n+ \n #1,150,0\n@@ -9234,17 +9234,17 @@\n fficulty\n-%0A\n+ \n increase\n@@ -9442,17 +9442,17 @@\n runtime,\n-%0A\n+ \n and debu\n@@ -9574,17 +9574,17 @@\n Standard\n-%0A\n+ \n software\n@@ -9657,17 +9657,17 @@\n  add new\n-%0A\n+ \n features\n@@ -9864,17 +9864,17 @@\n nal Bank\n-%0A\n+ \n Account \n@@ -9948,17 +9948,17 @@\n operable\n-%0A\n+ \n encoding\n@@ -10026,17 +10026,17 @@\n -country\n-%0A\n+ \n code: XE\n@@ -10111,17 +10111,17 @@\n rrencies\n-%0A\n+ \n (e.g. XB\n@@ -10352,17 +10352,17 @@\n  project\n-%0A\n+ \n designed\n@@ -10437,17 +10437,17 @@\n  sharing\n-%0A\n+ \n hypermed\n@@ -10694,17 +10694,17 @@\n rmats to\n-%0A\n+ \n protect \n@@ -10775,17 +10775,17 @@\n ssphrase\n-%0A\n+ \n encrypti\n@@ -10931,17 +10931,17 @@\n ncrypted\n-%0A\n+ \n by a pas\n@@ -11062,17 +11062,17 @@\n -weight,\n-%0A\n+ \n single-p\n@@ -11218,17 +11218,17 @@\n ions, no\n-%0A\n+ \n fallback\n@@ -11305,17 +11305,17 @@\n ther, or\n-%0A\n+ \n store da\n@@ -11317,17 +11317,17 @@\n re data.\n- \n+%0A\n A librar\n@@ -11396,17 +11396,17 @@\n call for\n-%0A\n+ \n read-onl\n@@ -11526,17 +11526,17 @@\n y of the\n-%0A\n+ \n blockcha\n@@ -11615,17 +11615,17 @@\n llet and\n-%0A\n+ \n can crea\n@@ -11950,17 +11950,17 @@\n count is\n-%0A\n+ \n associat\n@@ -12038,17 +12038,17 @@\n ject and\n-%0A\n+ \n the Mess\n@@ -12444,17 +12444,17 @@\n ntains a\n-%0A\n+ \n browser \n@@ -12527,17 +12527,17 @@\n standard\n-%0A\n+ \n (Fabian \n@@ -12608,18 +12608,18 @@\n st).\n- \n+%0A\n Mist was\n-%0A\n+ \n also\n@@ -12700,17 +12700,17 @@\n  ). Mist\n-%0A\n+ \n runs a f\n@@ -12786,17 +12786,17 @@\n  storage\n-%0A\n+ \n and ENS \n@@ -12905,17 +12905,17 @@\n sactions\n-%0A\n+ \n and bloc\n@@ -13057,17 +13057,17 @@\n duced by\n-%0A\n+ \n the ERC7\n@@ -13078,17 +13078,17 @@\n roposal.\n- \n+%0A\n NFTs can\n@@ -13139,17 +13139,17 @@\n ique and\n-%0A\n+ \n distinct\n@@ -13216,17 +13216,17 @@\n epresent\n-%0A\n+ \n ownershi\n@@ -13417,17 +13417,17 @@\n nce used\n-%0A\n+ \n in Ether\n@@ -13430,17 +13430,17 @@\n thereum.\n- \n+%0A\n (1) An a\n@@ -13500,17 +13500,17 @@\n which is\n-%0A\n+ \n used to \n@@ -13532,17 +13532,17 @@\n attacks.\n- \n+%0A\n (2) Proo\n@@ -13585,17 +13585,17 @@\n  a block\n-%0A\n+ \n that was\n@@ -13701,17 +13701,17 @@\n ncestor.\n- \n+%0A\n When a m\n@@ -13728,17 +13728,17 @@\n  a valid\n-%0A\n+ \n block, a\n@@ -13815,17 +13815,17 @@\n e tip of\n-%0A\n+ \n the bloc\n@@ -13900,17 +13900,17 @@\n by newer\n-%0A\n+ \n blocks a\n@@ -13953,17 +13953,17 @@\n  reward.\n- \n+%0A\n The term\n@@ -13987,17 +13987,17 @@\n referred\n-%0A\n+ \n gender-n\n@@ -14078,17 +14078,17 @@\n ed to as\n-%0A\n+ \n an %22uncl\n@@ -14181,17 +14181,17 @@\n m client\n-%0A\n+ \n software\n@@ -14333,17 +14333,17 @@\n  aims to\n-%0A\n+ \n achieve \n@@ -14414,17 +14414,17 @@\n hip of a\n-%0A\n+ \n certain \n@@ -14501,17 +14501,17 @@\n  able to\n-%0A\n+ \n particip\n@@ -14661,17 +14661,17 @@\n thereum,\n-%0A\n+ \n miners m\n@@ -14747,17 +14747,17 @@\n ork-wide\n-%0A\n+ \n difficul\n@@ -14863,17 +14863,17 @@\n e shared\n-%0A\n+ \n publicly\n@@ -14949,17 +14949,17 @@\n sponding\n-%0A\n+ \n private \n@@ -15064,17 +15064,17 @@\n saction,\n-%0A\n+ \n includin\n@@ -15150,17 +15150,17 @@\n  and, in\n-%0A\n+ \n case of \n@@ -15334,17 +15334,17 @@\n  in such\n-%0A\n+ \n a way th\n@@ -15514,17 +15514,17 @@\n contract\n-%0A\n+ \n that upd\n@@ -15662,17 +15662,17 @@\n he miner\n-%0A\n+ \n who foun\n@@ -15816,17 +15816,17 @@\n erialize\n-%0A\n+ \n objects \n@@ -15981,17 +15981,17 @@\n original\n-%0A\n+ \n referenc\n@@ -16064,17 +16064,17 @@\n blem for\n-%0A\n+ \n digital \n@@ -16219,17 +16219,17 @@\n instance\n-%0A\n+ \n can exis\n@@ -16345,17 +16345,17 @@\n count or\n-%0A\n+ \n contract\n@@ -16518,17 +16518,17 @@\n ublished\n-%0A\n+ \n by the N\n@@ -16675,17 +16675,17 @@\n t have a\n-%0A\n+ \n planned \n@@ -16795,17 +16795,17 @@\n milar to\n-%0A\n+ \n Python.%0A\n@@ -16982,17 +16982,17 @@\n milar to\n-%0A\n+ \n JavaScri\n@@ -17062,17 +17062,17 @@\n uage for\n-%0A\n+ \n Ethereum\n@@ -17088,17 +17088,17 @@\n ntracts.\n- \n+%0A\n Created \n@@ -17114,33 +17114,8 @@\n Wood\n- (co-author of this book)\n .%0A%0A*\n@@ -17225,17 +17225,17 @@\n assembly\n-%0A\n+ \n makes it\n@@ -17377,17 +17377,17 @@\n  address\n-%0A\n+ \n more den\n@@ -17459,17 +17459,17 @@\n angerine\n-%0A\n+ \n Whistle%22\n@@ -17605,17 +17605,17 @@\n to build\n-%0A\n+ \n DApps.%0A%0A\n@@ -17782,17 +17782,17 @@\n o change\n-%0A\n+ \n the gas \n@@ -17868,17 +17868,17 @@\n umulated\n-%0A\n+ \n state fr\n@@ -17949,17 +17949,17 @@\n of those\n-%0A\n+ \n operatio\n@@ -18061,17 +18061,17 @@\n Ethereum\n-%0A\n+ \n network.\n@@ -18173,17 +18173,17 @@\n argeting\n-%0A\n+ \n a specif\n@@ -18257,17 +18257,17 @@\n  for the\n-%0A\n+ \n transact\n@@ -18444,17 +18444,17 @@\n n set, a\n-%0A\n+ \n programm\n@@ -18526,17 +18526,17 @@\n lete%22 or\n-%0A\n+ \n %22computa\n@@ -18608,17 +18608,17 @@\n ine. The\n-%0A\n+ \n concept \n@@ -18793,17 +18793,17 @@\n n as the\n-%0A\n+ \n co-found\n@@ -19126,17 +19126,17 @@\n unts and\n-%0A\n+ \n interact\n@@ -19213,17 +19213,17 @@\n stead be\n-%0A\n+ \n retrieve\n@@ -19458,17 +19458,17 @@\n ts a new\n-%0A\n+ \n vision a\n@@ -19544,17 +19544,17 @@\n cations,\n-%0A\n+ \n to appli\n@@ -19642,16 +19642,19 @@\n ther. 10\n+ **\n  18 wei \n@@ -19757,17 +19757,17 @@\n Swarm to\n-%0A\n+ \n build DA\n@@ -19869,17 +19869,17 @@\n d as the\n-%0A\n+ \n destinat\n",
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      "body": "![unicorn.png](https://cdn.steemitimages.com/DQmUreoJjhaS7F3ejUreyn9rqRGmgp91WcCrAXyBkUiAo1v/unicorn.png)\n\nTaken from the book [Mastering Ethereum](https://github.com/ethereumbook/ethereumbook)\n\n**Account**\nAn object containing an address, balance, nonce and optional storage and code.\nAn account can be a contract account or an EOA (externally owned account).\n\n**Address**\nMost generally, this represents an EOA or contract that can receive (destination\naddress) or send (source address) transactions on the blockchain. More specifically, it\nis the right-most 160 bits of a Keccak hash of an ECDSA public key.\n\n**Assert**\nIn Solidity, assert(false) compiles to 0xfe, an invalid opcode, which uses up all\nremaining gas and reverts all changes. When an assert() statement fails, something\nvery wrong and unexpected should be happening, and you will need to fix your code.\nYou should use assert to avoid conditions which should never, ever occur.\n\n**Big-endian**\nA positional number representation where the most significant digit is first. The opposite\nof little-endian, where the least significant digit is first.\n\n**BIP**\nBitcoin Improvement Proposals. A set of proposals that members of the Bitcoin\ncommunity have submitted to improve Bitcoin. For example, BIP-21 is a proposal to\nimprove the Bitcoin uniform resource identifier (URI) scheme.\n\n**Block**\nA block is a collection of required information (a block header) about the comprised\ntransactions, and a set of other block headers known as ommers. It is added to the\nEthereum network by miners.\n\n**Blockchain**\nIn Ethereum, a sequence of blocks validated by the proof-of-work system, each linking\nto its predecessor all the way to the genesis block. This varies from the Bitcoin protocol\nin that it does not have a block size limit; it instead uses varying gas limits.\n\n**Bytecode**\nAbstract instruction set designed for efficient execution by a software interpreter or a\nvirtual machine. Unlike human readable source code, bytecode is expressed in numeric\nformat.\n\n**Byzantium fork**\nByzantium is the first of two hard forks for the Metropolis development stage. It included\nEIP-649: Metropolis Difficulty Bomb Delay and Block Reward Reduction, where the Ice\nAge (see below) was delayed by 1 year, and the block reward was reduced from 5 to 3\nether.\n\n**Compiling**\nConverting code written in a high-level programming language (e.g. Solidity) into a\nlower level language (e.g. EVM bytecode).\n\n**Consensus**\nWhen numerous nodes, usually most nodes on the network, all have the same blocks in\ntheir locally validated best block chain. Not to be confused with \"consensus rules\".\n\n**Consensus rules**\nThe block validation rules that full nodes follow to stay in consensus with other nodes.\nNot to be confused with \"consensus\".\n\n**Constantinople**\nThe second part of the Metropolis stage, planned for mid-2018. Expected to include a\nswitch to hybrid Proof-of-Work/Proof-of-Stake consensus algorithm, among other\nchanges.\n\n**Contract account**\nAn account containing code that executes whenever it receives a transaction from\nanother account (EOA or contract).\n\n**Contract creation transaction**\nA special transaction, with the \"zero address\" as the recipient, that is used to register a\ncontract and record it on the Ethereum blockchain (see \"zero address\").\n\n**DAO**\nDecentralized Autonomous Organization. Companies and other organizations which\noperate without hierarchical management. Also may refer to a contract named \"The\nDAO\" launched on 30th April 2016, which was then hacked in June 2016 and ultimately\nmotivated a hard fork (codenamed DAO) at block #1,192,000 which reversed the\nhacked DAO contract, and caused Ethereum and Ethereum Classic to split into two\ncompeting systems.\n\n**DApp**\nDecentralized Application. At a minimum, it is a smart contract and a web\nuser-interface. More broadly, a DApp is a web application that is built on top of open,\ndecentralized, peer-to-peer infrastructure services. In addition, many DApps include\ndecentralized storage and/or message protocol and platform.\n\n**Deed**\nNon-fungible token (NFT) standard introduced by the ERC721 proposal. Unlike ERC20\ntokens, deeds prove ownership and are not interchangeable, though they are not\nrecognized as legal documents in any jurisdiction, at least not currently (see also\n\"NFT\").\n\n**Difficulty**\nA network-wide setting that controls how much computation is required to produce a\nproof of work.\n\n**Digital signature**\nA digital signing algorithm is a process by which a user can produce a short string of\ndata called a \"signature\" of a document using a private key such that anyone with the\ncorresponding public key, the signature, and the document can verify that (1) the\ndocument was \"signed\" by the owner of that particular private key, and (2) the\ndocument was not changed after it was signed.\n\n**ECDSA**\nElliptic Curve Digital Signature Algorithm, or ECDSA, is a cryptographic algorithm used\nby Ethereum to ensure that funds can only be spent by their owners.\n\n**EIP**\nEthereum Improvement Proposals describe proposed standards for the Ethereum\nplatform. An EIP is a design document providing information to the Ethereum\ncommunity, describing a new feature or its processes or environment. For more\ninformation, see https://github.com/ethereum/EIPs (see also \"ERC\").\n\n**Entropy**\nIn the context of cryptography, lack of predictability, or level of randomness. When\ngenerating secret information, such as private keys, algorithms usually rely on a source\nof high entropy to ensure the output is unpredictable.\n\n**ENS**\nEthereum Name Service. For more information, see https://github.com/ethereum/ens/ .\n\n**EOA**\nExternally Owned Account. Accounts created by or for human users of the Ethereum\nnetwork.\n\n**ERC**\nEthereum Request for Comments, a label given to some EIPs which attempt to define a\nspecific standard of Ethereum usage.\n\n**Ethash**\nA Proof-of-Work algorithm for Ethereum 1.0. For more information, see\nhttps://github.com/ethereum/wiki/wiki/Ethash .\n\n**Ether**\nEther is the native cryptocurrency used by the Ethereum ecosystem, which covers gas\ncosts when executing Smart Contracts. Its symbol is Ξ, the Greek uppercase Xi\ncharacter.\n\n**Event**\nAn event allows the use of EVM logging facilities. DApps can listen for events and use\nthem to trigger JavaScript callbacks in the user interface. For more information, see\nhttp://solidity.readthedocs.io/en/develop/contracts.html#events .\n\n**EVM**\nEthereum Virtual Machine, a stack-based virtual machine which executes bytecode. In\nEthereum, the execution model specifies how the system state is altered given a series\nof bytecode instructions and a small tuple of environmental data. This is specified\nthrough a formal model of a virtual state machine.\n\n**EVM assembly language**\nA human-readable form of EVM bytecode.\n\n**Fallback function**\nA default function called in the absence of data or a declared function name.\n\n**Faucet**\nA service that dispenses funds in the form of free test ether that can be used on a\ntestnet.\n\n**Finney**\nA denomination of ether. 10 ** 15 finney = 1 ether.\n\n**Fork**\nThis term assumes two main meanings: a change in protocol causing the creation of an\nalternative chain, or a temporal divergence in two potential block paths during mining.\n\n**Frontier**\nThe initial test development stage of Ethereum, which lasted from July 2015 to March 2016.\n\n**Ganache**\nPersonal Ethereum blockchain which you can use to run tests, execute commands, and\ninspect state while controlling how the chain operates.\n\n**Gas**\nA virtual fuel used in Ethereum to execute smart contracts. The Ethereum Virtual\nMachine uses an accounting mechanism to measure the consumption of gas and limit\nthe consumption of computing resources (see \"Turing complete\").\n\n**Gas limit**\nThe maximum amount of gas a transaction or block may consume.\n\n**Gavin Wood**\nGavin Wood is a British programmer who is the co-founder and former CTO of\nEthereum. In August 2014 he proposed Solidity, a contract-oriented programming\nlanguage for writing smart contracts.\n\n**Genesis block**\nThe first block in a blockchain, used to initialize a particular network and its\ncryptocurrency.\n\n**Geth**\nGo Ethereum. One of the most prominent implementations of the Ethereum protocol,\nwritten in Go.\n\n**Hard fork**\nA hard fork, also known as a Hard-Forking Change, is a permanent divergence in the\nblockchain; one commonly occurs when non-upgraded nodes can’t validate blocks\ncreated by upgraded nodes that follow newer consensus rules. Not to be confused with\nfork, soft fork, software fork or Git fork.\n\n**Hash**\nA fixed-length fingerprint of variable-size input, produced by a hash function.\n\n**HD wallet**\nA wallet using the Hierarchical Deterministic (HD Protocol) key creation and transfer\nprotocol (BIP32).\n\n**HD wallet seed**\nAn HD wallet seed, or seed, is a value used to generate the master private key and\nmaster chain code for an HD wallet. The wallet seed can be represented by mnemonic\nwords, making it easier for humans to copy, backup and restore private keys.\n\n**Homestead**\nThe second development stage of Ethereum, launched in March 2016 at block\n#1,150,000.\n\n**Ice Age**\nA hard fork of Ethereum at block #200,000 to introduce an exponential difficulty\nincrease (aka Difficulty Bomb), motivating a transition to Proof-of-Stake.\n\n**IDE (Integrated Development Environment)**\nAn integrated user interface that typically combines a code editor, compiler, runtime,\nand debugger.\n\n**Immutable Deployed Code Problem**\nOnce a contract’s (or library’s) code is deployed it becomes immutable. Standard\nsoftware development practices rely on being able to fix possible bugs and add new\nfeatures, so this represents a challenge for smart contract development.\n\n**Inter-exchange Client Address Protocol (ICAP)**\nAn Ethereum Address encoding that is partly compatible with the International Bank\nAccount Number (IBAN) encoding, offering a versatile, checksummed and interoperable\nencoding for Ethereum Addresses. ICAP addresses use a new IBAN pseudo-country\ncode: XE, standing for \"eXtended Ethereum\", as used in non-jurisdictional currencies\n(e.g. XBT, XRP, XCP).\n\n**Internal transaction (also \"message\")**\nA transaction sent from a contract account to another contract account or an EOA.\n\n**IPFS**\nThe Inter Planetary File System is a protocol, a network and an open-source project\ndesigned to create a content-addressable, peer-to-peer method of storing and sharing\nhypermedia in a distributed file system.\n\n**Keccak256**\nCryptographic hash function used in Ethereum. Keccak256 was standardized as SHA-3.\n\n**Key Derivation Function (KDF)**\nAlso known as a \"password stretching algorithm\", it is used by keystore formats to\nprotect against brute-force, dictionary, and rainbow table attacks on passphrase\nencryption, by repeatedly hashing the passphrase.\n\n**Keystore File**\nA JSON-encoded file that contains a single (randomly generated) private key, encrypted\nby a passphrase for extra security.\n\n**LevelDB**\nLevelDB is an open source on-disk key-value store, implemented as a light-weight,\nsingle-purpose library, with bindings to many platforms.\n\n**Library**\nA library in Ethereum is a special type of contract that has no payable functions, no\nfallback function, and no data storage. Therefore, it cannot receive or hold ether, or\nstore data. A library serves as previously deployed code that other contracts can call for\nread-only computation.\n\n**Lightweight client**\nA lightweight client is an Ethereum client that does not store a local copy of the\nblockchain, or validate blocks and transactions. It offers the functions of a wallet and\ncan create and broadcast transactions.\n\n**Merkle Patricia Tree**\nA data structure used in Ethereum to efficiently store key-value pairs.\n\n**Message**\nAn internal transaction that is never serialized and only sent within the EVM.\n\n**Message Call**\nThe act of passing a message from one Account to another. If the destination account is\nassociated with EVM Code, then the VM will be started with the state of said Object and\nthe Message acted upon.\n\n**Metropolis Stage**\nMetropolis is the third development stage of Ethereum, launched in October 2017.\n\n**METoken**\nMastering Ethereum Token. An ERC20 token used for demonstration in this book.\n\n**Miner**\nA network node that finds valid proof of work for new blocks, by repeated hashing.\n\n**Mist**\nThe first Ethereum-enabled browser, built by the Ethereum Foundation. It contains a\nbrowser based wallet that was the first implementation of the ERC20 token standard\n(Fabian Vogelsteller, author of ERC20, was also the main developer of Mist). Mist was\nalso the first wallet to introduce the camelCase checksum (EIP-55, see [eip55] ). Mist\nruns a full node, and offers a full DApp browser with support for Swarm-based storage\nand ENS addresses.\n\n**Network**\nReferring to the Ethereum network, a peer-to-peer network that propagates transactions\nand blocks to every Ethereum node (network participant).\n\n**NFT**\nA non-fungible token (also known as a \"deed\"). This is a token standard introduced by\nthe ERC721 proposal. NFTs can be tracked and traded, but each token is unique and\ndistinct; they are not interchangeable like ERC20 tokens. NFTs can represent\nownership of digital or physical assets.\n\n**Node**\nA software client that participates in the network.\n\n**Nonce**\nIn cryptography, a value that can only be used once. There are two types of nonce used\nin Ethereum. (1) An account nonce: A transaction counter in each account, which is\nused to prevent replay attacks. (2) Proof of work nonce: The random value in a block\nthat was used to satisfy the proof of work.\n\n**Ommer**\nA child block of an ancestor that is not itself an ancestor. When a miner finds a valid\nblock, another miner may have published a competing block which is added to the tip of\nthe blockchain. Unlike Bitcoin, orphaned blocks in Ethereum can be included by newer\nblocks as ommers and receive a partial block reward. The term \"ommer\" is the preferred\ngender-neutral term for the sibling of a parent node, but is also sometimes referred to as\nan \"uncle\".\n\n**Parity**\nOne of the most prominent interoperable implementations of the Ethereum client\nsoftware.\n\n**Private key**\nSee \"Secret Key\".\n\n**Proof-of-Stake (PoS)**\nProof-of-Stake is a method by which a cryptocurrency blockchain protocol aims to\nachieve distributed consensus. Proof-of-Stake asks users to prove ownership of a\ncertain amount of cryptocurrency (their \"stake\" in the network) in order to be able to\nparticipate in the validation of transactions.\n\n**Proof-of-Work (PoW)**\nA piece of data (the proof) that requires significant computation to find. In Ethereum,\nminers must find a numeric solution to the Ethash algorithm that meets a network-wide\ndifficulty target.\n\n**Public key**\nA number, derived via a one-way function from a private key, which can be shared\npublicly and used by anyone to verify a digital signature made with the corresponding\nprivate key.\n\n**Receipt**\nData returned by an Ethereum client to represent the result of a particular transaction,\nincluding a hash of the transaction, its block number, the amount of gas used and, in\ncase of deployment of a Smart Contract, the address of the Contract.\n\n**Re-entrancy attack**\nAn attack that consists of an Attacker contract calling a Victim contract function in such\na way that during execution the Victim calls the Attacker contract again, recursively.\nThis can result, for example, in the theft of funds by skipping parts of the Victim contract\nthat update balances or count withdrawal amounts.\n\n**Reward**\nAn amount of ether included in each new block as a reward by the network to the miner\nwho found the Proof-of-Work solution.\n\n**Recursive Length Prefix (RLP)**\nAn encoding standard designed by the Ethereum developers to encode and serialize\nobjects (data structures) of arbitrary complexity and length.\n\n**Satoshi Nakamoto**\nThe name used by the person or people who designed Bitcoin, created its original\nreference implementation, and were the first to solve the double-spend problem for\ndigital currency. Their real identity remains unknown.\n\n**Singleton**\nA computer programming term that describes an object of which only a single instance\ncan exist.\n\n**Secret key (aka private key)**\nThe secret number that allows Ethereum users to prove ownership of an account or\ncontracts, by producing a digital signature (see public key, address, ECDSA).\n\n**SHA**\nThe Secure Hash Algorithm (SHA) is a family of cryptographic hash functions published\nby the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST).\n\n**Serenity**\nThe fourth and final development stage of Ethereum. Serenity does not yet have a\nplanned release date.\n\n**Serpent**\nA procedural (imperative) smart contract programming language with syntax similar to\nPython.\n\n**Smart contract**\nA program which executes on the Ethereum computing infrastructure.\n\n**Solidity**\nA procedural (imperative) programming language with syntax that is similar to\nJavaScript, C++ or Java. The most popular and most frequently used language for\nEthereum smart contracts. Created by Gavin Wood (co-author of this book).\n\n**Solidity inline assembly**\nEVM assembly language in a Solidity program. Solidity’s support for inline assembly\nmakes it easier to write certain operations.\n\n**Spurious Dragon**\nA hard fork of the Ethereum blockchain, which occurred at block #2,675,000 to address\nmore denial of service attack vectors, and another state clearing; see \"Tangerine\nWhistle\". Also, a replay attack protection mechanism.\n\n**Swarm**\nA decentralized (P2P) storage network, used along with Web3 and Whisper to build\nDApps.\n\n**Szabo**\nA denomination of ether. 10 ** 12 szabo = 1 ether.\n\n**Tangerine Whistle**\nA hard fork of the Ethereum blockchain, which occurred at block #2,463,000 to change\nthe gas calculation for certain I/O-intensive operations and to clear the accumulated\nstate from a denial of service attack, which exploited the low gas cost of those\noperations.\n\n**Testnet**\nShort for \"test network\", a network used to simulate the behavior of the main Ethereum\nnetwork.\n\n**Transaction**\nData committed to the Ethereum Blockchain signed by an originating account, targeting\na specific address. The transaction contains metadata such as the gas limit for the\ntransaction.\n\n**Truffle**\nOne of the most commonly used Ethereum Development Frameworks.\n\n**Turing complete**\nA system of data-manipulation rules (such as a computer’s instruction set, a\nprogramming language, or a cellular automaton) is said to be \"Turing complete\" or\n\"computationally universal\" if it can be used to simulate any Turing machine. The\nconcept is named after English mathematician and computer scientist Alan Turing.\n\n**Vitalik Buterin**\nVitalik Buterin is a Russian–Canadian programmer and writer primarily known as the\nco-founder of Ethereum and as the co-founder of Bitcoin Magazine.\n\n**Vyper**\nA high-level programming language, similar to Serpent, with Python-like syntax.\nIntended to get closer to a pure-functional language. Created by Vitalik Buterin.\n\n**Wallet**\nSoftware that holds secret keys. Used to access and control Ethereum accounts and\ninteract with Smart Contracts. Keys need not be stored in a wallet, and can instead be\nretrieved from an offline storage (e.g. a memory card or paper) for improved security.\nDespite the name, wallets never store the actual coins or tokens.\n\n**Web3**\nThe third version of the web. First proposed by Gavin Wood, Web3 represents a new\nvision and focus for web applications: from centrally owned and managed applications,\nto applications built on decentralized protocols.\n\n**Wei**\nThe smallest denomination of ether. 10 18 wei = 1 ether.\n\n**Whisper**\nA decentralized (P2P) messaging service. It is used along with Web3 and Swarm to\nbuild DApps.\n\n**Zero address**\nA special Ethereum address, composed entirely of zeros, that is specified as the\ndestination address of a contract creation transaction.",
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      "body": "In that same month, I created a website to post articles, experiments and some applications related to the technology. Feel free to take a look at http://operationblockchain.org, Steemers! :D",
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      "body": "**Coins mentioned in post:**\n\nCoin | | Price (USD) | 📉 24h | 📈 7d\n- | - | - | - | -\n**BTC** | Bitcoin | 8192.870$ | _0.1%_ | _9.15%_\n**ETH** | Ethereum | 465.206$ | _-0.23%_ | _0.31%_\n**GAS** | Gas | 10.238$ | _-0.96%_ | _-6.81%_\n**NEO** | NEO | 33.447$ | _-0.61%_ | _-1.23%_",
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      "body": "Hi! I am a robot. I just upvoted you! I found similar content that readers might be interested in:\nhttps://ethereum.stackexchange.com/questions/3/what-is-meant-by-the-term-gas",
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      "body": "![gas station 2.png](https://cdn.steemitimages.com/DQmTdDRSBk39D2SmsaDC5xCvakZJjPh4UdPfsGcppbuM7qL/gas%20station%202.png)\n\n# In a nutshell\nGas is the execution fee paid for transactions on the Ethereum network.\nIts price is expressed in ether and it's decided by the miners.\nThe operations have a gas cost to be executed.\nThe miners decide the gas price, which is the price of one unit of gas.\nFee = total gas cost x gas price.\n\n# Getting more technical...\nGas is the name of a special unit on the Ethereum protocol.\nIt measures how much \"work\" an action or set of actions takes to perform.\nBy requiring that a transaction is paid for each operation it performs (or causes a contract to perform),\nwe ensure that the network doesn't become bogged down by performing intensive work that isn't valuable to anyone.\n\n# The gas unit\nThis is a unit that things can be measured in, but there isn't any actual token for Gas.\nEx: you can't own like 1000 units of Gas (unlike the NEO Gas, that actually is a token).\nGas exists only inside of the Ethereum Virtual Machine as a count of how much work is being performed.\nWhen it comes to actually paying for gas, the transaction fee is charged in Ether (ETH).\n\n# But why not charge in ether directly?\nBecause of the volatility of the ether price.\nEther, like Bitcoin and the majority of the cryptocurrencies has a volatile price on the market.\nThe cost of computation doesn't go up and down just because the price of Ether changes.\nSo, it's helpful to separate out the price of computation from the price of a unit of Ether.\nThis way, the cost of an operation doesn't have to be changed every time the market moves.\n\n# Gas cost\nAmount of work that goes into something (like number of hours of labour).\nAnalogy: timesheet of work performed by the miners.\n\n# Gas price\nIs the price of one unit of gas. It is defined by the miners.\nTo see the current gas price in Gwei (1 Gwei = 1,000,000,000 Wei or 0.000000001 Ether), go to https://ethgasstation.info/.\nAnalogy: hourly wage you pay the miners to do some work you.\n\n# Fee = gas cost x gas price\nThis defines the price in ether of a transaction on the network.\n\n# Difference between \"not having a high enough fee\" and \"transaction running out of gas\"\nIf the gas price you set to your transaction is too low, no one will even bother to run your transaction.\nIt will simply not be included in the blockchain by miners.\nAnalogy: offering less money than a worker is asking to do some job.\n\nOn the other hand, if provided gas price is acceptable and the transaction results in so much computational work\nthat the combined gas costs go past the amount attached as a fee, the gas counts as \"spent\".\nIn this case you don't get it back to your account.\nThe miner will:\n1. stop the transaction\n1. revert any changes it made\n1. ...but still include it on the blockchain as a \"failed transaction\", COLLECTING THE FEES from it.\n\n*Sounds unfair?*\nRemember that the miner spent computational power (electricity) trying to execute your transaction.\nHence, is fair that you pay them for the work they did, even though your \"badly designed transaction\" ran out of gas.\n\n# Providing too big of a fee\nIt's like providing a high Bitcoin fee for a transaction:\nyour transaction will be prioritised on the transactions pool, but your money is gone.\nAnalogy: paying a person more money just because you want. They will gladly accept it ;)\n\n# Normal gas price + more ether attached than needed\nHere you just attached more ether than was needed to pay for the gas that your transaction consumed.\nThe excess will be refunded to you.\nThis is because the miners only charge for the work they actually do.\nAnalogy: paying a $ 50 restaurant bill with $ 100. They will just give you the change.\n\n# How to get Gas to pay for transactions?\nSince the fee in gas is paid in ether you just have to add (real) ETH to your account.\n\n# Conclusion\nThis system makes sure that nothing runs forever.\nPeople then are careful about the code they run.\nIt keeps both miners and users safe from bad code.\n\n\nMore details:\n[Ethereum Gas by ConsenSys](https://media.consensys.net/ethereum-gas-fuel-and-fees-3333e17fe1dc)\n[Operation Blockchain](http://operationblockchain.org)",
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