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      "body": "Today, I'll take you to a nice small community, called Wasdale Head in the charming Lake District. It's nothing more than a pub, an hotel, some houses and a small touristic shop at the foot of Scafell Pike, Englands' heighest peak. Except for some stubborn English farmers, a couple of tourists (mainly pensioned nature lovers) and thousands of sheep, not much living creatures visit this place. Nevertheless, these people and animals all have to do something with the geological history of this place. \n\nSpeaking of landforms and climates, this region have seen it al over the past millions of years. From being an enormous mountain range, existing out of chains of volcano's rising as high as the modern Himalaya's to vast swampy forested. It has known climatic conditions with absolutely no rain where wind could play freely around, creating a see of sand dunes and were the burning sunshine could evaporate huge lakes until nothing else but salt planes remained but 2 million years ago, it was covered by glaciers. A returning consequence of glacial and interglacial periods formed the landscape as we can see it today. The enormous masses of ice carved out the typical U-shape valleys and when the temperatures were rising again, during the interglacials, huge lakes of meltwater filled the narrow valleys. \n\nToday, we find ourselves in such an interglacial period. How do we know? Well, during a glacial periods, glaciers and ice sheets are covering almost half of Europe, including Scotland, parts of Germany and entire Scandinavia. Last time I was in Norway, I saw some snow and ice but nothing which I would classify as 'an ice sheet'. Anyway, we don't find any glaciers today in the Lake District, but as the name of the region is hinting, we do find deep lakes. Our beloved Wasdale head, is located near such a meltwater lake, the Wastwater. It's the deepest lake of England and it is a perfect example of such glacial lake we can find in an interglacial. Sadly, it wasn't pretty enough to fit on the picture but what we can see is the nice green valley bottom.\n\nThis rather flat area exist out of glacial sediments. The glaciers used to cut out the valleys, scraping the bedrock, producing small grains which were suspended in the meltwater. When the glaciers melt and the lakes formed, these small grained sediments, called 'till', could slowly sack to the bottom of the lake. Some of the lake water has flowed away and the fertile till sediments came to the surface. Nowadays, farmers use these flat valleybottoms to keep their sheep. The grass is from better quality and as you can see, it is easier to build the charming stone walls to protect their flocks of sheep. It is in strong contrast to the steep valleys slopes, with low quality of grass and overall being too fierce and wild to herd their beloved fluffy beasts. Moreover, this hillsides are covered by gullies and other slope processes but that is a story for another day. \n\nEver wondered what a glacier from two millions ago has to do with an old stubborn English farmer, holding sheep, has to with each other? I doubt it but just in case, now you know. Of course, you can also just enjoy this stunning scenery...\n\n![16.jpg](https://steemitimages.com/DQmZxNh3EGX6uuoNnbh2ENL5Wjwe4Xr8g9uRMnpBmCptxEN/16.jpg)\n© Google Earth/Infoterra Ltd & Bluesky\n\nsource information: the geological factsheet of the National park authority of the Lake district. If you're interested in this geological story, you have to give it a try. It's briefly and clearly explained which is quite rare in the world of geologists...  http://www.lakedistrict.gov.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0008/171188/factsheet_geology.pdf",
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      "body": "Today's image is coming from the Ethiopian highlands. In the valleys you can see thousands of small farms in a so called 'upland permanent farming' system. It is the final stage in the expanding usage of fallows, starting with the infamous slash & burn system. The natural fallow becomes scarcer when farmers are expanding the cultivated area and in the end, they end up in a system with a lot of small farms with almost no natural vegetation left. At the top of the hills, there is no cropland. These lands are the communal grazing grounds where herdsmen guide flocks of cattle and bring them back to their farms in the evening.\n\nThis intensive type of farming goes together with a list of environmental problems such as declining soil fertility and erosion. As there is no natural vegetation left, the soil does nog get the chance to recover. Why not? Trees regenerate nutrients through their deep roots. They use these nutrients to generate leafs, which will fall on the ground after some time. Microbial life and earthworms will decompose the dead leafs, putting the nutrients back in the soil. It's a closed cycle. The classic slash & burn system lets nature restore the soil before burning it down, leaving the big trees and concentrating the nutrients in form of ashes. After some years of cultivation, they let the forest grow again, restoring the old ecosystem and let the natural nutrients cycle restore the soil. Problem come up when the trees are removed definitely, as on our picture . There are no deep rooting systems anymore and trees are replaced by food crops. The leafs and other plant material won't fall on the ground and decompose but will be harvested. Instead of returning the nutrients back to the soil, they are removed from the field for human or cattle consumption. Due to the population pressure and the constant demand for food, farmers cannot let the forest restore as they need the land to produce crops. Year by year, they deplete the soil until there are almost no nutrients left in the soil. \n\nAnother problem is soil erosion. Due to the low nutrient content in the soils, there are not much plants covering the soil and as a consequence, raindrops have a strong impact during a shower. The energy of the raindrops loosen grains and wash parts of the soil away. This results in downstream mudstreams, even lower soil fertility as most of the nutrients are stored in the topsoil and even gullies can develop. To prevent this, farmers try to keep some trees and this is easily visible on the picture. The green branches are trees and bushes, located around local streams to prevent the banks for collapsing.\n\nIt all looks like a doom & gloom scenario but there are some ways out. The most viable solution might be the implementation of mineral fertilizers which replace the role of the natural forest to supply nutrients to the soil. However, mineral fertilizer do require farmers with some financial capital and a wel developed local market to sell the fertilizers. Increasing the livelihood of Ethiopian farmers may be reached by supporting such a local market and enabling the local community to acquire such mineral fertilizers, both in terms of logistics as in building a financial capital to buy them. To complicate everything even more, there is also the cultural aspect. Most of the farmer families are part of this agricultural system for ages and may be very critical to such drastic changes. Moreover, mineral fertilizers are not the only possible solution and they won't solve the entire problem. There is still a long way to go but the key message is that developing start with fully understanding all the aspects of a local system, both in terms of economy and culture as in in geography and agriculture...\n\n![15.jpg](https://steemitimages.com/DQmWtcJwtDXdqvMNujYbSdYUauk1nsfCXHdqMrnmCWb6sEA/15.jpg)\n© Google Earth/ Copernicus\n\n(source information: course 'Agro-systems', teached by prof. Swennen at the KU Leuven, Belgium.)",
      "json_metadata": "{\"tags\":[\"geography\",\"photography\",\"art\",\"geopolis\",\"agriculture\"],\"image\":[\"https://steemitimages.com/DQmWtcJwtDXdqvMNujYbSdYUauk1nsfCXHdqMrnmCWb6sEA/15.jpg\"],\"app\":\"steemit/0.1\",\"format\":\"markdown\"}",
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      "parent_permlink": "geography",
      "permlink": "google-earth-pearls-14-upland-farming-in-ethiopia",
      "title": "Google Earth pearls #14: Upland farming in Ethiopia"
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