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      "body": "@@ -1894,8 +1894,162 @@\n ows-cat)\n+%0A%0ABecause steemit won't let us edit posts that are more than a week old, I will be adding links to new entries in this series as comments to this posting.\n",
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      "title": "Unix command line tricks for Linux, Mac, and Windows: table of contents",
      "body": "@@ -1743,8 +1743,159 @@\n ws-diff)\n+%0A* %5Bviewing (and doing other tricks with) files: **cat**%5D(https://steemit.com/technology/@bobdc/unix-command-line-tricks-for-linux-mac-and-windows-cat)\n",
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      "title": "Unix command line tricks for Linux, Mac, and Windows: cat",
      "body": "<center><p><img src=\"https://steemitimages.com/DQmYL2JTS2FAy2BSTLGr5xVCwSxvX6RYFcJ3hYC4feawCAG/unix.jpg\"></p></center>\n\nSee [Unix command line tricks for Linux, Mac, and Windows: table of contents](https://steemit.com/technology/@bobdc/unix-command-line-tricks-for-linux-mac-and-windows-table-of-contents) for an introduction to this series and links to all the entries. Today we look at `cat`, a command for quickly looking at files. We'll start by trying it  out with this file, which I've called `testfile1.txt`:\n\n    Here is the first line of testfile1.txt.\n    This is the second and final line of testfile1.txt. \n\nEntering the following at the command line will show you the contents of the file at the command line. I won't even show you the output, because it's identical to what you see above: \n\n    cat testfile1.txt\n\nI use `cat` every time I want to look at the contents of a file that is 25 lines or less, which means I use it dozens of times a day. \n\nLike all the other commands in this series, using the `man` (\"manual\") command to learn more about `cat` by entering `man cat` told me about some great options for this command that definitely fell into the category of \"where have you been all my life.\" For example, `-n` (\"number\") tells `cat` to number the lines in the output, so that entering this\n\n    cat -n testfile1.txt\n\ngives us this: \n\n     1\tHere is the first line of testfile1.txt.\n     2\tThis is the second and final line of testfile1.txt.\n\nIf you want a copy of the file with the numbers, you can use the redirect symbol to tell `cat` to store its output in a file instead of outputting it to your terminal: \n\n    cat -n testfile1.txt > testfile1a.txt\n\nFor some more cool `cat` command line options, we'll use this sample file, which I called `testfile2.txt`: \n\n    Here is the first line of testfile2.txt.\n    Here is the second line. I'm leaving the third line blank: \n\n    This is the fifth line. I'm leaving the sixth, seventh, and eighth lines blank: \n\n\n\n    This is the ninth and final line of testfile2.txt. \n\nAn `-n` switch would tell `cat` to add numbers to all 9 lines of `testfile2.txt`, but `-b` (\"number-nonblank\") tells it to number only the nonblank lines, so that this command\n\n    cat -b testfile2.txt\n\ngives us this: \n\n    1\tHere is the first line of testfile2.txt.\n    2\tHere is the second line. I'm leaving the third line blank: \n\n    3\tThis is the fifth line. I'm leaving the sixth, seventh, and eighth lines blank: \n\n\n\n    4\tThis is the ninth and final line of testfile2.txt. \n\nThe `-s` switch (\"squeeze-blank\") tells `cat` that when it finds multiple blank lines in a row, it should only output one, so that this command \n\n    cat -s testfile2.txt\n\ngives us this output: \n\n    Here is the first line of testfile2.txt.\n    Here is the second line. I'm leaving the third line blank: \n\n    This is the fifth line. I'm leaving the sixth, seventh, and eighth lines blank: \n\n    This is the ninth and final line of testfile2.txt. \n\nI can think of a lot of data cleanup I've done where that would have been handy if I'd known about it. \n\nWhy does `cat` have that name? Because it's short for \"concatenate,\" which is something else it can do. If you list multiple files as arguments to the command, it will output all of their contents. If you redirect this output, it will combine the contents of the multiple files into the output file that it creates. For example, the following will create `testfile3.txt` as a copy of `testfile1.txt` followed by a copy of `testfile2.txt`: \n\n    cat testfile1.txt testfile2.txt > testfile3.txt\n\nTry out `man cat` yourself to learn more about this very popular command.",
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      "body": "@@ -119,25 +119,9 @@\n %0A%0ATh\n-is is a series on\n+e\n  %5BUn\n@@ -164,48 +164,46 @@\n ix) \n-command line tools that are available on\n+operating system was the granddaddy of\n  Lin\n@@ -227,21 +227,152 @@\n dows\n- machines. It\n+, and most of its commands for exploring and pulling information out of  text files are available on these modern operating systems. This series\n  cov\n",
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      "body": "I can't find an edit button for my post, so I'm adding a link to the table of contents for the series here:  [Unix command line tricks for Linux, Mac, and Windows: table of contents](https://steemit.com/technology/@bobdc/unix-command-line-tricks-for-linux-mac-and-windows-table-of-contents)",
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      "body": "<center><p><img src=\"https://steemitimages.com/DQmYL2JTS2FAy2BSTLGr5xVCwSxvX6RYFcJ3hYC4feawCAG/unix.jpg\"></p></center>\n\nThis is a series on [Unix](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unix) command line tools that are available on Linux, OS X, and Windows machines. It covers some of the most useful Unix commands for working with text files, because as the idea of Data Science gets bigger and bigger, it turns out that these old school Unix tools are more valuable than ever for dealing with the different kinds of data files that may show up. \n\nOn Windows 10, you'll want to install the [bash command line](https://www.howtogeek.com/249966/how-to-install-and-use-the-linux-bash-shell-on-windows-10/), and for older versions of Windows, install [Cygwin](https://www.cygwin.com/); on [OS X](http://blog.teamtreehouse.com/introduction-to-the-mac-os-x-command-line) and Linux you'll want the Terminal app. (In the old days, before computer screens had windows, that terminal was the whole interface!)\n\nEntries in the series so far: \n\n*  [searching through text files: **grep**](https://steemit.com/technology/@bobdc/unix-command-line-tricks-for-linux-mac-and-windows-grep)\n* [grabbing the top, bottom, or middle of a file: **head** and **tail**](https://steemit.com/technology/@bobdc/unix-command-line-tricks-for-linux-mac-and-windows-head-and-tail)\n* [pulling columns from a delimited file: **cut**](https://steemit.com/technology/@bobdc/unix-command-line-tricks-for-linux-mac-and-windows-cut)\n* [finding the differences between two files: **diff**](https://steemit.com/technology/@bobdc/unix-command-line-tricks-for-linux-mac-and-windows-diff)",
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      "body": "<center><p><img src=\"https://steemitimages.com/DQmYL2JTS2FAy2BSTLGr5xVCwSxvX6RYFcJ3hYC4feawCAG/unix.jpg\"></p></center>\n\nThis is part of a series on [Unix](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unix) command line tools that are available in on Linux, OS X, and Windows machines. We'll be looking at some of the most useful Unix command line commands, because as the idea of Data Science gets bigger and bigger, it turns out that these old school Unix tools are more valuable than ever for dealing with the different kinds of data files that may show up. See [Unix command line tricks for Linux, Mac, and Windows: grep](https://steemit.com/technology/@bobdc/unix-command-line-tricks-for-linux-mac-and-windows-grep) for more on this series. \n\nToday, we'll look at `diff`, which shows the difference between two files. It's pretty simple and very useful. \n\nFor our example, we'll use two files: first, this `sampledata.csv` file exported as a CSV file from a spreadsheet program like Excel or LibreOffice Calc:\n\n    Employee Number,Family Name,Given Name,Hire Date,Phone Extension\n    1001,Johnson,Emily,11/13/2016,x0023\n    1002,Smith,John,03/16/2017,x7225\n    1003,Baker,Debbie,03/23/2017,x8834\n    1004,Morales,Kermit,06/09/2017,x2643\n\nWe'll also use this `newsampledata.csv` file, which is similar to the file above:\n\n    Employee Number,Family Name,Given Name,Hire Date,Phone Extension\n    1000,Alvarez,Catherine,10/12/2016,x0314\n    1001,Johnson,Emily,11/13/2016,x0023\n    1002,Smith,Jack,03/16/2017,x7225\n    1003,Baker,Debbie,03/23/2017,x8834\n    1004,Morales,Kermit,06/09/2017,x2643\n\nHow similar? We'll let `diff` tell us with this command: \n\n     diff sampledata.csv newsampledata.csv\n\nIt gives us this output: \n\n    1a2\n    > 1000,Alvarez,Catherine,10/12/2016,x0314\n    3c4\n    < 1002,Smith,John,03/16/2017,x7225\n    ---\n    > 1002,Smith,Jack,03/16/2017,x7225\n\nThe greater-than sign (`>`) refers to lines in the first filename passed to `diff` and the less-than sign (`<`) refers to lines in the second file. The first difference that the output above describes is a line in the first file that's not in the second; a record about Catherine Alvarez. \n\nThe second difference it found is a line that is in both files, but different, and the `---` is between the pair of lines: the line from the first file is about John Smith, and the line from the second is about Jack Smith. All the other data on those lines is the same.\n\nAs with all Unix commands, you can learn more about `diff` with the manual (`man`) command: \n\n    man diff\n\nI've been using `diff` for years and was very surprised just now to learn from the `man` command how many command line options `diff` has. For example, `-y` tells it to display the two files side-by-side with the differences marked:\n\n\n![diff1.png](https://steemitimages.com/DQmQ4NVMuvRafvQVcjs6djSDTxoafmoKkRW7mSmFSZiAVmQ/diff1.png)\n\nMake sure to take a quick tour of what `man` has to say about the ways you can control `diff` output.",
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      "body": "<center><p><img src=\"https://steemitimages.com/DQmYL2JTS2FAy2BSTLGr5xVCwSxvX6RYFcJ3hYC4feawCAG/unix.jpg\"></p></center>\n\nThis is part of a series on [Unix](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unix) command line tools that are available in on Linux, OS X, and Windows machines. We'll be looking at some of the most useful Unix command line commands, because as the idea of Data Science gets bigger and bigger, it turns out that these old school Unix tools are more valuable than ever for dealing with the different kinds of data files that may show up. See [Unix command line tricks for Linux, Mac, and Windows: grep](https://steemit.com/technology/@bobdc/unix-command-line-tricks-for-linux-mac-and-windows-grep) for more on this series. \n\nToday, we'll look at `cut`. Last week we looked at [`head` and `tail`](https://steemit.com/technology/@bobdc/unix-command-line-tricks-for-linux-mac-and-windows-head-and-tail), which you can combine to take horizontal slices of files—for example, to take lines 145,234 through 145,238 of a 300,000 line file. `cut` lets you take vertical slices of files, which is especially useful when working with spreadsheet data or data exported from relational tables. \n\nFor our examples, we'll use this `sampledata.csv` file exported as a CSV file from a spreadsheet program like Excel or LibreOffice Calc:\n\n    Employee Number,Family Name,Given Name,Hire Date,Phone Extension\n    1001,Johnson,Emily,11/13/2016,x0023\n    1002,Smith,John,03/16/2017,x7225\n    1003,Baker,Debbie,03/23/2017,x8834\n    1004,Morales,Kermit,06/09/2017,x2643\n\nThe following command tells `cut` that our input file is delimited with commas and that we only want the third field:\n\n    cut -d ',' -f3 sampledata.csv\n\nThe command returns that third field for all the rows: \n\n    Given Name\n    Emily\n    John\n    Debbie\n    Kermit\n\nWe can also ask for multiple fields with a list of field numbers separated by commas. The following asks for the third and fifth fields:\n\n    cut -d ',' -f3,5 sampledata.csv\n\nAnd here they are: \n\n    Given Name,Phone Extension\n    Emily,x0023\n    John,x7225\n    Debbie,x8834\n    Kermit,x2643\n\nLast week we also learned about combining commands into a pipeline where each command sends its output to be used as input by the next command. The following uses the `head` command to take the first four lines of the file named as input, then sends its output to the `tail` command, which will pass along the last three lines of its input to the `cut` command, which will output the first and fourth columns of its input: \n\n    head -n 4 sampledata.csv | tail -n 3 | cut -d ',' -f1,4\n\nHere is the result: \n\n    1001,11/13/2016\n    1002,03/16/2017\n    1003,03/23/2017\n    \n \nAgain, this may not seem useful with an input file that is five lines long, but when you've exported a table from a massive database and have hundreds of thousands of lines that you can't just pull up in a text editor, you can combine these commands to perform a lot of very useful tasks. For example, you can pull a subset that has the parts that are most interesting to you and that will fit into a text editor or visualization tool. \n\nAs with all Unix commands, you can learn more `cut` with the manual (`man`) command: \n\n    man cut",
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      "body": "<center><p><img src=\"https://steemitimages.com/DQmYL2JTS2FAy2BSTLGr5xVCwSxvX6RYFcJ3hYC4feawCAG/unix.jpg\"></p></center>\n\nThis is part of a series on [Unix](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unix) command line tools that are available in on Linux, OS X, and Windows machines. We'll be looking at some of the most useful Unix command line commands, because as the idea of Data Science gets bigger and bigger, it turns out that these old school Unix tools are more valuable than ever for dealing with the different kinds of data files that may show up. See [Unix command line tricks for Linux, Mac, and Windows: grep](https://steemit.com/technology/@bobdc/unix-command-line-tricks-for-linux-mac-and-windows-grep) for more on this series. \n\nToday, we'll look at `head` and `tail`, which show the beginning and end of files. They may not look like much when we see what they do with small files, but be patient—they can be very useful with the bigger and bigger files that people need to work with these days.  We'll start with examples using this small `sampledata.csv` exported as a CSV file from a spreadsheet program like Excel or LibreOffice Calc:\n\n    Employee Number,Family Name,Given Name,Hire Date,Phone Extension\n    1001,Johnson,Emily,11/13/2016,x0023\n    1002,Smith,John,03/16/2017,x7225\n    1003,Baker,Debbie,03/23/2017,x8834\n    1004,Morales,Kermit,06/09/2017,x2643\n\nThe `head` command shows you the first 10 lines of a file unless you specify another number with the `-n` option. Here, we ask for the first 3 lines of the file above: \n\n    head -n 3 sampledata.csv\n\nHere is the result:\n\n    Employee Number,Family Name,Given Name,Hire Date,Phone Extension\n    1001,Johnson,Emily,11/13/2016,x0023\n    1002,Smith,John,03/16/2017,x7225\n\nThe `tail` command shows the last 10 lines of a file unless you use `-n` to specify a different amount. This command asks for the last 3 lines of the file above: \n\n    tail -n 3 sampledata.csv\n\nHere is the result: \n\n    1002,Smith,John,03/16/2017,x7225\n    1003,Baker,Debbie,03/23/2017,x8834\n    1004,Morales,Kermit,06/09/2017,x2643\n\nAgain, this may not seem like a big deal, but bear with me. One command line switch for the grep command that I didn't mention [when I wrote about grep](https://steemit.com/technology/@bobdc/unix-command-line-tricks-for-linux-mac-and-windows-grep) was `-n`, which shows the line number of each line where it found the target it was searching for. If I entered the following,\n\n    grep -n 7225 sampledata.csv\n\nI will get a list of all the lines that have \"7225\" in them, with their line numbers. It's only one, at line 3: \n\n     3:1002,Smith,John,03/16/2017,x7225\n\nAll these commands send their output to appear on your screen, but you can create a Unix pipeline by sending output of one command to be used as the input of another with the pipe symbol, which is on the same key as your backslash: `|`. \n\nLet's say that after finding out that \"7225\" is on line 3, I want to see it with one line before it and one line after it. The following command sends the first 4 lines of the file to the `tail` command, which displays the last 3 of what it gets; the result will be lines 2 through 4 of the original `sampledata.csv` input: \n\n    head -n 4 sampledata.csv | tail -n 3\n\nHere is the result: \n\n    1001,Johnson,Emily,11/13/2016,x0023\n    1002,Smith,John,03/16/2017,x7225\n    1003,Baker,Debbie,03/23/2017,x8834\n\nNow imagine that you have a file with 300,000 lines, and grep shows you that something you may be interested in is on line 145,234. You'll know more about whether it's interesting if you can see 4 lines before it and 4 lines after it, but this file is way too big to load into a text editor. So, you tell `head` to send the first 145,238 lines to the `tail` command, and you tell `tail` that you want the last 9 lines of its input: \n\n    head -n 145238 my3kfile.txt | tail -n 9\n\nThis is a running theme in Unix: commands that seem so simple that they're not very useful can be customized with options such as `-n` and combined with the pipe symbol. \n\nAnd, as with all Unix commands, you can learn more about these with the manual (`man`) command: \n\n    man head\n    man tail",
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      "body": "<center><p><img src=\"https://steemitimages.com/DQmYL2JTS2FAy2BSTLGr5xVCwSxvX6RYFcJ3hYC4feawCAG/unix.jpg\"></p></center>\n\n\nThe [Unix](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unix) operating system was the granddaddy of Linux, OS X, and Windows, and most of its commands for exploring and pulling information out of  text files are available on these modern operating systems. This is part of a series where we'll be looking at some of the most useful Unix command line commands, because as the idea of Data Science gets bigger and bigger, it turns out that these old school Unix tools are more valuable than ever for dealing with the different kinds of data files that may show up. \n\nToday, we'll look at grep, which searches through files. \n\nOn Windows 10, you'll want to install the [bash command line](https://www.howtogeek.com/249966/how-to-install-and-use-the-linux-bash-shell-on-windows-10/), and for older versions of Windows, install [Cygwin](https://www.cygwin.com/); on [OS X](http://blog.teamtreehouse.com/introduction-to-the-mac-os-x-command-line) and Linux you'll want the Terminal app. (In the old days, before computer screens had windows, that terminal was the whole interface!)\n\nImagine that we have a text file called `sampledata.csv` exported as a CSV file from a spreadsheet program like Excel or LibreOffice Calc, and it looks like this:\n\n    Employee Number,Family Name,Given Name,Hire Date,Phone Extension\n    1001,Johnson,Emily,11/13/2016,x0023\n    1002,Smith,John,03/16/2017,x7225\n    1003,Baker,Debbie,03/23/2017,x8834\n    1004,Morales,Kermit,06/09/2017,x2643\n\n\nWhen I tell grep to search that file for a certain string of characters,\n\n    grep ker sampledata.csv\n\nit outputs all the lines with that string:\n\n    1003,Baker,Debbie,03/23/2017,x8834\n\ngrep has many, many command  line options to customize its behavior. For example, adding `-i` tells it to ignore the difference between upper and lower case when searching: \n\n    grep -i ker sampledata.csv\n\nThis gives us the line with \"ker\" and also the one with \"Ker\":\n\n    1003,Baker,Debbie,03/23/2017,x8834\n    1004,Morales,Kermit,06/09/2017,x2643\n\nThe `-c` switch tells grep to count how many lines have the string:\n\n    grep -c 2017 sampledata.csv\n\nInstead of ouputting any lines from the file it searched, this command shows us the number of times it found the line:\n\n    3\n\nThe `-v` switch tells it to \"invert the search\"—in other words, to show the lines that do *not* have that line.  In the next command, grep is asking for all the lines that do not have 2017 in them,\n\n    grep -v 2017 sampledata.csv\n\nand here is the result: \n\n    Employee Number,Family Name,Given Name,Hire Date,Phone Extension\n    1001,Johnson,Emily,11/13/2016,x0023\n\nThe name \"grep\" means \"globally search a regular expression and print.\" (In the earliest days of computers, a terminal was not a screen but a printer where all of your scrolled-up output got noisily printed. The word \"print\" is still used in most programming languages today to make something appear on the screen.) [Regular expressions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regular_expression) use special syntax to indicate patterns to look for. In a regular expression, a period means \"any character at all,\" so the following command searches for lines with a date that has 03 before the first slash, 2017 after the second one, and any two characters between the slashes: \n\n    grep 03/../2017 sampledata.csv\n\nHere is the result: \n\n    1002,Smith,John,03/16/2017,x7225\n    1003,Baker,Debbie,03/23/2017,x8834\n\n(If you really want to look for a period in the file that grep is searching, put a backslash before it on the grep command line to \"escape\" it.) Regular expressions can get much fancier than this, and entire books have been written about them. \n\nThe Unix `man` command (short for \"manual\") shows documentation about Unix commands, so you can enter the following to learn more about grep's many other options: \n\n    man grep",
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      "body": "<center><p><img src=\"https://steemitimages.com/DQmdNx14WKapQ7QNoyNRXjYhMgj2WHXk2MTNkZKuEx56aaF/unix.jpg\"></p></center>\n\nThe [Unix](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unix) operating system was the granddaddy of Linux, OS X, and Windows, and most of its commands for exploring and pulling information out of  text files are available on these modern operating systems. This is part of a series where we'll be looking at some of the most useful Unix command line commands, because as the idea of Data Science gets bigger and bigger, it turns out that these old school Unix tools are more valuable than ever for dealing with the different kinds of data files that may show up. \n\nToday, we'll look at grep, which searches through files. \n\nOn Windows 10, you'll want to install the [bash command line](https://www.howtogeek.com/249966/how-to-install-and-use-the-linux-bash-shell-on-windows-10/), and for older versions of Windows, install [Cygwin](https://www.cygwin.com/); on [OS X](http://blog.teamtreehouse.com/introduction-to-the-mac-os-x-command-line) and Linux you'll want the Terminal app. (In the old days, before computer screens had windows, that terminal was the whole interface!)\n\nImagine that we have a text file called `sampledata.csv` exported as a CSV file from a spreadsheet program like Excel or LibreOffice Calc, and it looks like this:\n\n    Employee Number,Family Name,Given Name,Hire Date,Phone Extension\n    1001,Johnson,Emily,11/13/2016,x0023\n    1002,Smith,John,03/16/2017,x7225\n    1003,Baker,Debbie,03/23/2017,x8834\n    1004,Morales,Kermit,06/09/2017,x2643\n\n\nWhen I tell grep to search that file for a certain string of characters,\n\n    grep ker sampledata.csv\n\nit outputs all the lines with that string:\n\n    1003,Baker,Debbie,03/23/2017,x8834\n\ngrep has many, many command  line options to customize its behavior. For example, adding `-i` tells it to ignore the difference between upper and lower case when searching: \n\n    grep -i ker sampledata.csv\n\nThis gives us the line with \"ker\" and also the one with \"Ker\":\n\n    1003,Baker,Debbie,03/23/2017,x8834\n    1004,Morales,Kermit,06/09/2017,x2643\n\nThe `-c` switch tells grep to count how many lines have the string:\n\n    grep -c 2017 sampledata.csv\n\nInstead of ouputting any lines from the file it searched, this command shows us the number of times it found the line:\n\n    3\n\nThe `-v` switch tells it to \"invert the search\"—in other words, to show the lines that do *not* have that line.  In the next command, grep is asking for all the lines that do not have 2017 in them,\n\n    grep -v 2017 sampledata.csv\n\nand here is the result: \n\n    Employee Number,Family Name,Given Name,Hire Date,Phone Extension\n    1001,Johnson,Emily,11/13/2016,x0023\n\nThe name \"grep\" means \"globally search a regular expression and print.\" (In the earliest days of computers, a terminal was not a screen but a printer where all of your scrolled-up output got noisily printed. The word \"print\" is still used in most programming languages today to make something appear on the screen.) [Regular expressions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regular_expression) use special syntax to indicate patterns to look for. In a regular expression, a period means \"any character at all,\" so the following command searches for lines with a date that has 03 before the first slash, 2017 after the second one, and any two characters between the slashes: \n\n    grep 03/../2017 sampledata.csv\n\nHere is the result: \n\n    1002,Smith,John,03/16/2017,x7225\n    1003,Baker,Debbie,03/23/2017,x8834\n\n(If you really want to look for a period in the file that grep is searching, put a backslash before it on the grep command line to \"escape\" it.) Regular expressions can get much fancier than this, and entire books have been written about them. \n\nThe Unix `man` command (short for \"manual\") shows documentation about Unix commands, so you can enter the following to learn more about grep's many other options: \n\n    man grep",
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